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CHICKENS 

AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



Practical Methods of Rearing Chickens, with Full 

Instructions for the Management of Incubators, 

Natural and Artificial Incubation, 

Diseases of Fowls, etc. 



By 
A. T. Johnson 



Philadelphia 

The Penn Publishing Company 

1909 






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Copyright 1909 by The Penn Publishing Company 



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CSa.A, 244 609 
JUL 19 1909 



Chickens 



PREFACE 

In the following pages the author deals in a 
systematic and thorough way with the subjects of 
natural and artificial incubation, and the rearing 
of chickens. He commences with a chapter 
on Nature's method of incubation, then fully 
describes the wonderful structure of an egg^ fol- 
lowing with chapters on the development of the 
embryo, the importance of securing good eggs 
for incubation, incubation by the hen and by 
artificial means ; the merits and otherwise of 
moist and non-moisture incubators and their 
management, the rearing of chickens by natural 
and artificial means, weaning and feeding the 
chickens, rearing in winter; concluding with 
some sound useful advice regarding various com- 
mon ailments in chickens. 



INDEX 



Air Cell in Egg . . . 
Albumen, Uses of 
Allantois, or Egg Sac 
Amnion, or Egg Sac . 
Artificial Incubation . 

in Practice . . . . 

Rearing 



Blastoderm of an Egg 
Brooder, A Cold . . . 
Brooders, Management of 



Calender, Poultry Keepers' 
Chicken Diseases ... 
Chickens, Artificial Rearing 

Exercise for 

Feeding . . . 82, 83, 84, 
88, 

Feeding Ar tificial ly- 
reared 

Feeding Winter-reared 

First Meal for . . . 

Meals per Day . . 

Newly Hatched . . 

Parasites of . 

Rearing in Buildings 

Rearing in Winter . 

Rearing with Hens 

Water for 

Weaning 

Coops for Rearing . . 



Diseases of Chickens 
Anaemia .... 



80, 



14 Blood-spots in Eggs . . 131 

13 Bronchitis 122 

23 Bumble-foot .... 123 

23 Catarrh 125 

48 Cholera 123 

1<8 Crop-bound 126 

97 Diarrhoea 127 

Diphtheria 128 

16 Dropsy 129 

109 Egg-bound 130 

110 Egg-eating 131 

Enteritis 131 

150 Favus 133 

120 Feather-eating .... 133 

97 Gapes 134 

85 Gout 136 

*-6, Leg-weakness 137 

116 Liver Disease 137 

Pneumonia 138 

104 Rheumatism 139 

117 Roup 140 

82 Scaly Leg 145 

92 Tuberculosis . . . , . 137 

76 White Comb 141 

142 Worms 141 

118 

114 Egg, Air Cell in 14 

79 Albumen in 13 

90 Blastoderm of an ... 17 

94 Chalazae of an 16 

116 Embryo of an ... 18 
Germination of Embryo 

120 in 18 

122 Germ Spot of an ... . 16 

5 



6 



INDEX 



Egg, Shell of an . . . 
Structure of an ... 

Eggs, Chilled . ... 
Collecting and Storing 
Importance of Good . 
for Hatching .... 
Hatching under Hens 

Overheated 

Preserving 

Received by Rail or Post 
Sex in. Fallacy . . . 
Soft or Shell-less . . . 
Testing Hatching 
Testing on Ninth Day 
Turning Hatching . . 

Embryo of an Egg . . 



14 
12 
67 
30 
27 
27 
33 
68 
145 
32 
31 
18 
66 
41 
63 
18 



Foster-mother, Manage- 
ment of a 98 

Selecting a 100 

Foster-mothers 97 

in Sheds 116 

Hatching, Period of . . . 43 

under Hens 33 

Hen, Management of Sitting 39 

Placing on Nest .... 38 

Hens, Best Brooders ... 35 

Protecting from Vermin 37 

Broody 148 

Inbreeding, Evils of . . . 28 

Incubation, Artificial . . 48 

Nature's Method ... 9 

Under Hens 33 



Incubator, A Modern Hydro 50 

Earliest Type of ... . 49 

Houses 115 

Incubators, First Type of 

Hydro 50 

Improvements in . . . 52 
Moisture and Ventila- 
tion of 70 

Non-moisture 55 

Placing Eggs in ... . 63 

Turning Eggs in ... . 62 

Mating 149 

Natural Incubation ... 33 
Nest, A Properly Con- 
structed 35 

Fallacy of Moistening . 45 

Ovary, Structure of . . . 12 

Shell, The 14 

Sitting Hen 38 

Management of ... . 39 

Temperature ... 60, 104, 106 

Thermometers 69 

Thermostat, The .... 56 

Ventilation .... 70, 103, 106 

Vermin 142 

Flees 143 

Lice 142 

Red Mite 144 



CHICKENS 

And How to Raise Them 



CHAPTER I 
PREFATORY NOTES FROM NATURE 

To enable him to thoroughly grasp the some- 
what complex subject of incubation, the student 
would do well to briefly consider the different 
processes which Nature adopts for the safety of 
the embryo young during its development. All 
animals begin life within an egg. If we con- 
sider first the fishes, we find the female deposit- 
ing her eggs in the water, when they are left to 
take their chance of being fertilized by the 
medium which is also deposited in the water by 
the male. These eggs are exposed to many 
dangers, but in the countless numbers that one 
fish will yield the safety of the species against 
extermination is guaranteed. When we come to 

7 



8 CHICKENS 

reptiles, their eggs are discovered to be fertilized 
before they leave the body of the mother, and, 
compared with those of fishes, are few in num- 
ber. They are fewer in number because the off- 
spring have a better chance of surviving than the 
young of fishes, and because the eggs themselves 
are protected either by the parent or by some 
other provision of nature. The next step from 
the reptile is the bird, and here we find a great 
stride made in the history of evolution. Not 
only are the eggs of a bird beautifully adapted 
for the purpose for which they are formed, but 
over them the female, and often the male, ex- 
tends a solicitous care. The rudiments of all 
those higher attributes which characterize the in- 
stincts and emotions of the mammalia — of man 
himself — we may see in bird life. And in the 
embryo's development within the egg we can 
read the story of the evolution of living creatures. 
In birds, as we shall see, the warmth of the 
mother's body, which is necessary for the growth 
of the embryo, is bestowed from her breast as 
she " sits " upon the eggs. On the other hand, 
in mammalia the egg^ or the germ of life which 
is contained in an egg-form, is fertilized and de- 
veloped within the body of the mother, and 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 9 

brought forth in due time as a little reproduction 
of herself. 

Here, however, we are mainly concerned with 
bird life, and turning again to Nature as a guide, 
in the matter of incubation particularly, what 
do we find ? Many object lessons of value, 
many which are complex and hard to under- 
stand. Nests for the reception of birds' eggs are 
made of every conceivable shape and form, or 
they are not made at all, the eggs being merely 
deposited on a bare slab of rock. The Long- 
tailed Tit and the Wren often choose the most 
sheltered sites for their nests, and build them 
domed, of the warmest material, and of great 
thickness. A thin, airy platform of twigs high 
up on some naked bough is all that the Wood 
Pigeon makes for her nest and nursery. There 
are nests, far down in a deep, dark hole of a tree, 
or swinging in a frail basket-work of grass and 
twigs at the end of a bough. The Ostrich hens 
scrape a large hole in the sand with their feet, 
and in it a great number of eggs are deposited 
— not by one bird, but by the whole colony. 
Much of the heat necessary for incubation in 
this case is provided by the sun-warmed sand, 
but the cock bird sits upon the " nest " by night, 



10 CHICKENS 

the hens protecting it by day from prowling 
enemies. 

The most interesting form of incubation is that 
adopted by the Megapodes, or mound-building 
turkeys, of the Celebes. These birds collect to- 
gether huge mounds of leaves, earth, and decay- 
ing substances, which are often fifteen to twenty 
feet high, and thirty to a hundred feet in cir- 
cumference. The materials of which these 
mounds are made soon begin to ferment, and so 
engender heat, which lasts a considerable time, 
particularly as the pile is frequently being added 
to by its owners. For many miles round the 
Megapodes congregate together for the building 
of this natural incubator, and in it they deposit 
eggs in large numbers. In course of time the 
eggs hatch, without any attention whatever hav- 
ing been bestowed upon them after laying by the 
parent birds. The young are left entirely to 
themselves, and, unlike those of any other known 
species, are able to fly and seek food immediately 
after birth ! 

Now what deductions can be made from the 
foregoing observations ? The nest is, in the first 
place, a receptacle for the eggs undergoing in- 
cubation, and, generally speaking, a home for the 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 11 

young until they are old enough to leave their 
parents, or to go away with the latter in search 
of food. That eggs do not require a nest con- 
structed of any definite material, or placed in 
any particular site, for their successful develop- 
ment is equally true. The majority of them are, 
however, airy structures, the peculiar, almost 
fantastic forms of many of them being the result 
of natural selection working for the protection 
of the species, and to some extent the birds' 
aesthetic sense may be responsible. But the fact 
that birds' eggs hatch so successfully under so 
many diverse conditions goes far toward assisting 
us in unraveling the knot that for so long has 
kept the subject of incubation in mystery. All 
birds' eggs are alike, made of the same materials 
or ingredients. They all develop under the in- 
fluence of a proper warmth. They differ only in 
the length of time which development occupies, 
and in the conditions under which they exist 
during that period. Hidden in these facts are 
the fundamental principles upon which our prac- 
tice of modern incubation has been built. 



CHAPTER II 

THE STRUCTURE OF AN EGG 

Before one can possibly become proficient in 
the subject of practical incubation he must be 
conversant with the formation of an egg. It 
should be scarcely necessary to remark that, al- 
though an egg is an important and nutritious 
article of food, Nature never intended it for that 
purpose. It has been designed not only as the 
most suitable receptacle for the embryo life of a 
bird, but its whole contents are especially and 
beautifully adapted for the requirements of that 
embryo during the imprisoned period of its early 
career. The egg, to the tiny germ which it con- 
tains, is as a mother who gives to her helpless 
offspring not only protection but sustenance and 
material for growth. That fact the student of 
incubation must bear in mind. 



The Ovary. — If a hen during her laying period 
were to be examined internally one would find 
attached to the spine a cluster of globular ob- 

12 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 13 

jects, called the ovary (A, Fig. 1). The largest 
of these are like an ordinary yolk of an egg, and 
they hang at the bottom of the bunch. Those 
nearer the spine are smaller. In fact, we should 
find these round objects, which are yolks in 
various stages of development, of all sizes from 
the largest, which are more than an inch in 
diameter, to the smallest ones at the root of the 
cluster, which are scarcely visible to the naked 
eye. Every day, or more commonly every other 
day, one of these larger yolks comes to maturity ; 
and, whether fertilization has taken place or not, 
breaks away from the tiny bag which contained 
it, called the " ovisac," and enters the wide mouth 
(B, Fig. 1) of the egg-passage, or " oviduct." 
When it is received into the oviduct it is enclosed 
in a thin membrane, and, as it passes along, those 
other portions which go to make it a perfect egg 
are secreted and formed. 

Albumen, or " White." — The first of these is the 
albumen, or " white." This clothes the volk in 
layers (which can be readily seen if a hard-boiled 
egg be cut across in slices) as it passes along the 
oviduct. Its uses are various, and it is of the 
utmost importance to the embryo chick. It pro- 



14 CHICKENS 

tects the delicate germ from sudden shocks and 
extremes of temperature, and forms the main 
nourishment upon which the embryo lives and 
grows during the period of incubation. 

The Air Cell. — When the egg has received the 
albumen it becomes entirely surrounded with two 
membranes, or skins, which lie immediately under 
the shell. At the larger end of the egg these 
membranes separate, forming a space known as 
the air cell (AC, Fig. 2). In the fresh egg this 
chamber is very small, but as time goes on, and 
the contents of the egg evaporate (the albumen 
contains about seventy-eight per cent, of water 
in its composition), it becomes considerably 
larger. During incubation, too, it increases in 
size, often occupying over one-fifth of the entire 
egg as the latter approaches the date of hatching. 

The Shell.— The last thing with which the egg 
is invested is the shell, which is formed of a limy 
material secreted by the walls of the oviduct. 
This shell, or outer covering, being designed by 
Nature to protect the contents of the egg, is 
enormously strong for its thickness and peculiar 
formation. Yet it is so made that the particles 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



15 



of lime admit of a free passage of air between 
them. It is porous, so that the embryo within, 
as we shall see later, can breathe the outer air. 




Fig. 1.— The Ovary or Egg Organs of a Hen 

References : a, Ovary ; b, Oviduct ; c, Egg in the Duct 

One more remarkable fact may be mentioned 
here with regard to the shell. It is often a puz- 
zle to many people how such a frail creature as 



1 



I 
16 . CHICKENS 

an unborn chicken can break itself out of its 
prison walls, and it is no doubt a cause for 
wonder. But we must bear in mind that the 
shell of a fresh egg and that of one on the point 
of hatching are two very different things. While 
incubation is going on, a softening of the shell is 
also progressing. By means of the chemical 
changes which take place as the embryo breathes, 
the particles of lime undergo a change, and be- 
come disintegrated, so that by the time the 
chicken is ready to hatch, the shell is compara- 
tively easily broken. Thus Nature, economical 
always, has made one purpose serve another. 
Fig. 1, C, shows the egg passing along the oviduct 
just before expulsion. 

The Chalazse. — Most people know what an egg 
looks like when it is broken into a saucer. In 
the middle is the yolk (Fig. 2, y\ and around it 
the albumen (w). At each side of the former 
may be seen a twisted and rather more dense 
portion of albumen, whiter than the rest. These 
chalazae (Fig. 2, ch\ as they are called, have noth- 
ing directly to do with the germ, as many people 
suppose. They consist, as we have already said, 
of denser albumen, and are, in a mechanical way, 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 17 

of the utmost importance. They act as buffers 
to prevent the yolk from being injured by a sud- 
den jar, and, being attached as they are on op- 
posite sides and a little below the yolk, serve as 
balances, which always keep the latter in the 
same relative position. It does not matter how 
much an egg may be turned round, the chalazaB 
prevent the yolk from turning with it, holding 
it always with the germ uppermost. 

The Germ Spot, or Blastoderm. — If the yolk of 
a hard-boiled egg be cut in two, it will be seen 
that the central and upper part is of a paler 
color than the remainder. The former is known 
as the white yolk (Fig. 2, wy\ the latter as the 
yellow (Fig. 2, y). It is on the surface of the 
white } 7 olk that the germ of the egg rests. 
Turning again to the broken egg in the saucer, we 
shall see on the uppermost surface of the yolk a 
tiny disc, or ring, about one-eighth of an inch in 
diameter. This is the germ-spot (Fig. 2, gs\ or 
blastoderm (Gr. blastos— a sprout, and derma — a 
skin). Whether the egg be fertile or not this 
disc is always present, and proof of fecundation 
having taken place can only be ascertained with 
the aid of a lens. It is from the centre of the 



18 CHICKENS 

germ-spot that the development of the chicken 
begins. From an invisible speck, hidden there, 
the embryo will grow, and, under proper condi- 
tions, absorbing the whole of the contents of the 
egg, emerge in three weeks a perfect chicken. 

Soft or Shell-less Eggs.— Having briefly traced 
the origin and formation of an egg, the beginner 



G.S 




fan* 



Fig. 2. — Section of an Egg 

References : Membrane ; c h, Chalazse ; w y, White Yolk ; g s r , Germ 
Spot ; y, Yellow Yolk ; a c, Air Cell ; w, White or Albumen 

will now be better able to understand why hens 
sometimes lay abnormal eggs. For instance, it is 
not difficult to comprehend how, in a hen whose 
ovary is very prolific, two yolks may become de- 
tached, and enter the oviduct together, with the 
result that a " double-yolked egg " is laid. Gr we 
can see how a hen whose organs of reproduction 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 19 

are unduly stimulated might produce eggs and 
lay them faster than the oviduct can shell them. 
They are what are generally called "soft," or 
" shell-less " eggs, and may either be enclosed in 
the membrane only or have shells of a very thin 
texture. Again, a hen will sometimes lay yolks 
only, no abumen or lime having been secreted by 
the oviduct, but such instances are more uncom- 
mon, and of more serious consequence. In any 
case, even if the shell only appears abnormal, such 
eggs are seldom fertile. 



CHAPTER III 

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO 

If we look back through the story of the 
embryo's growth to the very beginning, it is as if 
we saw an epitome of the evolution of animal life 
upon the earth. From the single cell — from 
which all organisms are supposed to have de- 
veloped — we can trace the development of a 
creature until its final stage is completed, and it is 
able to move about and reproduce its kind. 

Genesis of Life. — The germinal disc which, as 
we have already said, rests upon the upper 
surface of the yolk, may at its earliest stage be 
compared with the ovule of a plant, which re- 
mains inactive until a little grain of pollen 
unites with it. Then, as we all know, the union 
of these two — the pollen and the ovule, the 
father and the mother — produces a young plant 
which is the joint product of its two parents. 
In like manner the germ of an egg as it enters 
the oviduct is a single cell, but as it passes along, 

20 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 21 

and fecundation takes place, it divides and sub- 
divides into a being consisting of many cells. 
That is to say, life has commenced. What it is 
that endows the tiny creature with life and 
movement ; what power it is that first creates 
the faint wave-like motion of the primitive heart, 
we do not know. It is one of the deepest mys- 
teries in Nature, and one that need not be fur- 
ther discussed in a volume of this kind. 

Egg, a Delicate Living Organism. — It will now 
be understood that before an egg is laid, pro- 
vided it be fertile, the life of the minute embryo 
has already gone through several stages. It has 
started on its life's journey, but when the egg 
becomes cold, after it has been laid, the embryo 
lapses into a quiescent condition, in which it re- 
mains until warmth is restored, when growth is 
again resumed. At the same time this germ, 
inactive and torpid as it appears to be, is a frail 
and delicate organism, very susceptible to ex- 
tremes of temperature and rough usage. The 
longer an egg is kept before being incubated the 
weaker the germ becomes ; the fresher the egg 
the stronger the embryo. At any time during 
incubation an embryo may die through sheer in- 



22 CHICKENS 

ability to live, having inherited weakness from 
its parents ; or it may succumb to sudden concus- 
sions or loud noises. The student of incubation 
should therefore train himself to look upon every 
fertile egg, not only before incubation but dur- 
ing the process, as a living organism of great 
delicacy, that requires gentle handling. It 
would serve no useful purpose in a work of this 




Fig. 3.— First Signs of Life in a Germinating Egg 

kind to follow in all its minute detail the de- 
velopment of the embryo during incubation, but 
a glance at the principal stages of its growth 
will be of great assistance in helping the begin- 
ner to better understand the subject of incuba- 
tion, whether natural or artificial. 

First Stages of Germination. — After a hen's 
egg has been subjected to the proper temperature 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 23 

— say 104 degrees — for a few hours the germ- 
spot (Fig. 3) enlarges and elongates. It is lying- 
in a slight hollow on the surface of the yolk, and 
in about forty-eight hours the little network of 
blood-vessels, which are spreading out from the 
central spot like the fibrous roots of a tree, begin 
to pulsate with the movement of the blood. At 
this stage the embryo is surrounded by a trans- 




Fig. 4. — Embryo About the Fifth Day 

Reference: al, Allantois 

parent sac, called the " amnion," but no sooner 
does the circulation of the blood begin than 
another organ of the greatest importance is de- 
veloped. This is the " allantois " (Fig. 4). It is a 
semi-transparent sac or bag, that, starting from 
the navel of the embryo, gradually increases in 
size until it entirely surrounds the contents of 
the egg } its extremities coming in contact with 



24 CHICKENS 

the shell. This organ is furnished with a system 
of blood-vessels, and serves as a lung for the 
erabyro. It oxygenates the blood, purifies it by 
bringing it in contact with the oxygen of the air 
which passes through the shell, and returns it 
revived to the heart. Thus we can readily un- 
derstand how important it is to keep the egg 
shells clean during incubation, so that their 
porosity be not obstructed in any way. We can 
understand, too, the necessity for fresh air in the 
incubator and incubator room. If the pores of 
an egg's shell were to be closed up the embryo 
would die of suffocation, just as we should do if 
we were shut up in a sealed chamber and de- 
prived of the life-giving, purifying oxygen of 
fresh air. 

Development of Wings, Legs, and Feathers. — 
During the growth of the allantois, little rudi- 
ments of wings and legs have appeared as sprouts 
upon the inner side of the embryo (Fig. 4). At 
the tenth or eleventh day some rudiments of 
feathers begin to show, and the bony skeleton is 
in process of formation. All this time the 
chicken appears to have been subsisting upon the 
yolk, which, however, does not decrease in size. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 25 

The albumen, on the other hand, has consider- 
ably diminished, and the explanation appears to 
be that the yolk, connected as it is with the 
navel, or " umbilicus," serves as a medium 
through which the nutritive properties of the 
albumen are conveyed to the digestive canal of 
the chicken. 

Final Stage of Development. — At the four- 
teenth or fifteenth day the embryo is nearly as long 
as the egg y and would be longer but for its curled- 
up position. Nature now endows it with her 
" finishing touches." The feather tracts become 
more noticeable, the toe-nails have appeared ; 
the beak hardens, becomes more shapely, and a 
little limy point grows on its tip to assist the 
chicken in breaking its way through the shell. 
Some time during the nineteenth or twentieth 
day the chick pierces the membrane that covers 
it, and for the first time breathes the air (which 
is contained in the air cell already referred to, 
and which by this time is very much enlarged) 
with its true lungs. The blood ceases to flow 
into the allantois, which is required no longer, 
and the chicken, methodically removing the 
larger half of the shell by a chipping process, 



26 CHICKENS 

tumbles out, and tastes liberty for the first 
time. 

Not only do the allantois and amnion almost 
entirely disappear during the hatching process, 
but what remains of the yolk is quickly drawn 
into the body of the chicken through the navel. 

Thus Nature completes her wonderful story of 
development by providing the newly-born chicken 
with sufficient nourishment, in the form of the 
yolk, to sustain it for the first twenty-four hours, 
at least, of its life, after which it is well able to 
feed itself, provided food be within reach. 



CHAPTER IV 

EGGS FOR HATCHING 

So much depends upon the selection of suitable 
eggs for incubation that a separate chapter may 
here be devoted to the subject. 

Importance of Obtaining Good Eggs. — We have 
seen that a fertile egg is the joint product of its 
two parents, and, that being so, it — or, rather, 
the chicken which it produces — not only inherits 
an outward likeness to its father and mother, but 
an inward constitutional resemblance. In other 
words, sickly or immature stock birds will pro- 
duce weak chickens, and vice versa. Most of the 
failures in incubation may be directly traced to 
the parents, which are in some way or another 
physically unfit. Immaturity in the stock birds 
is one of the most frequent causes of these fail- 
ures, particularly when both the male and fe- 
males are under age. Another source of disap- 
pointment in hatching may be found in disease. 
The breeding stock may be suffering from tuber- 

27 



28 



CHICKENS 



culosis, or some such ailment, which will as- 
suredly be passed on to the youngsters, if not in 
its original form in some other. There may not 
be any actual disease in the stock, but they are 
badly managed, with the result that vigor and 
strength have given way to lassitude and obesity, 
and this, again, is a fruitful cause of " dead in 
shell " or sickly chickens. 



In-breeding. — In-breeding — the mating together 
of close relations, such as brothers and sisters — 
has been denounced as an evil practice, and 
rightly so in some respects, for, generally speak- 
ing, the offspring of in-bred parents is weaker 
constitutionally than the young of a male and 
female of different blood. But in-breeding in it- 
self need not be directly harmful. It need not 
be the bogie that some people make it out to be. 
In the production of some of the finest races of 
our poultry in-breeding has been necessary, and 
we are accustomed to look only at the evil results 
and shut our eyes to the good. The truth about 
this much-discussed subject is, we think, some- 
thing like this. All beings are subject to con- 
stitutional defects. Few, if any, are perfect. 
Then if we mate two animals which are of the 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 29 

same blood, and which by the laws of heredity 
will possess the same flaws in their respective 
constitutions, together we must expect to find 
those flaws intensified, made worse, in the off- 
spring. If, on the other hand, we mate two un- 
related animals, the chances are that they will 
not have defects in common, with the result that 
the young will, although inheriting, perhaps, 
some of the weaknesses (as well as the vigor) of 
either parent, not suffer from the combined ef- 
fects of two defective parents. But supposing 
we were to have a brother and sister, say, of 
some robust breed like the Old English Game, 
which, so far as we could ascertain, were per- 
fectly sound in a general sense, and we mated 
them together, we should expect the chickens to 
be as robust as the parents. Here in-breeding 
will have had no ill-effects, because there were 
no physical deformities or shortcomings common 
to the two sexes. It is only where there is con- 
stitutional taint on either side that in-breeding is 
harmful. Nature in-breeds continuously, but, be 
it remembered, how physically perfect are the 
beings she employs! Any constitutional flaw is 
wiped out with ruthless severity. She teaches 
"in-breeding," but "selection" also, and ber 



30 CHICKENS 

pruning-knife is very sharp. We have gone into 
this part of the subject at some length because 
by a careful study of it the thoughtful student 
will gather much that will be useful to him in 
practical incubation. 

Collecting and Storing Eggs for Incubation. — 
Eggs for hatching, or, indeed, for any purpose, 
ought to be collected at least once daily. In 
frosty weather twice a day is not too often. 
Sometimes it may be desired to store the eggs 
required for hatching for a week or so, but, as I 
have pointed out, the fresher the egg the better 
will it hatch. In storing, various ways have 
been tested, and much discussion has arisen as to 
whether they ought to be in a warm place or a 
cold one, and so on. In our experience the fol- 
lowing is the best way. See that the eggs are 
clean, and pack them in boxes of bran, the latter 
stuffed around pretty tight. If they are placed 
on end, the large one for preference, the neces- 
sity for turning each day will be done away with. 
Keep the boxes in a dry place of moderate tem- 
perature and out of draughts, and the eggs will 
keep two or three weeks quite well ; but whether 
they will hatch so successfully as fresh ones is 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 31 

another matter. It depends a great deal on the 
strength of the germ. Whenever eggs are kept 
on their sides they must be turned over daily. 
No preservative of any kind may be applied to 
the shells. The bran will retard evaporation of 
the contents, and so prevent too great an enlarge- 
ment of the air cell. 

It is always desirable, in selecting eggs for 
hatching, to choose those which are of normal 
size and shape. Any with thin or malformed 
shells ought to be discarded, and used for 
table. 

The Sex in Eggs a Fallacy. — Although there 
are a host of traditions regarding eggs for hatch- 
ing, particularly on the subject of foretelling sex, 
they may all be ignored as entirely untrustworthy. 
Remarkable coincidences are recorded from time 
to time, but they have been as often refuted by 
practical experiment. Generally speaking, per- 
haps, there are more cockerels bred early in the 
year, and the male sex is more predominant in the 
offspring of very vigorous parents. No definite 
statements can, however, be made on the subject, 
except that to foretell sex in eggs is an impossi- 
bility. 



32 CHICKENS 

Treatment of Eggs Received by Rail or Post. — 
When eggs for hatching have been traveling by 
rail or post, it is always desirable to unpack them 
and let them rest on their sides for twelve or 
eighteen hours before placing them in the incuba- 
tor or under the hen. Whether the germ becomes 
" fatigued," or otherwise " upset " by the journey, 
cannot be ascertained, but it has been proved be- 
yond a doubt that a "rest" revives it, and 
materially assists the hatching process. 

f A Final Word on the Subject. — Finally, in con- 
cluding this chapter, let us once more emphasize 
the importance of keeping one's stock birds 
robust and vigorous. The most skilful operator 
cannot hatch chickens successfully from weakly 
germs, the offspring of weakly parents. To the 
latter, as we have already said, most of the 
hatching failures can be traced. Too often the 
perplexed beginner who is worrying himself about 
moisture, ventilation, temperature, and such like, 
and perhaps calling the maker of the incubator 
hard names, may find the cause of failure in his 
own breeding-pens. 



CHAPTEE V 
NATURAL INCUBATION : THE SITTING HEN 

After a hen has been laying for some time, 
and has completed her " batch " of eggs, she in- 
dicates a desire to sit by remaining on the nest 




Fig. 5. — Section of a Sitting Nest 

for considerable periods during the day, until at 
length she remains there altogether, coming off 
only at long intervals to feed. Such a hen will 
generally peck at a hand placed near her when 

33 



34 



CHICKENS 



on the nest, the instinct of protecting her eggs 
and young already beginning to assert itself, and 
when at liberty she goes about with feathers 
erect and " clucking " as if she were calling her 
brood. Some hens become broody, or evince a 
desire to sit, more often than others, and the 




Fig. 6. — Sitting Nest Closed 

Mediterranean breeds, through their being so 
rigorously selected for eggs, have lost the brood- 
ing instinct altogether. These are called non- 
sitters, yet it seems somewhat strange — except 
when viewed in the light of science — that the 
union of two non-sitters, say a Houdan and a 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 35 

Leghorn, will produce a cross-bred fowl which 
often makes an excellent sitter and mother. 

The Best Broodies are those hens which are 
compact in shape, fairly full in plumage, with 
fine legs, and feet free from feathers. The 
Orpington or Wyandotte, in any variety, may be 
given as a good class. The heaviest hens are 
liable to crush the eggs entrusted to them, al- 
though for incubating goose or turkey eggs a 
Cochin, Brahma, or large Plymouth Rock cannot 
be excelled. Game hens make very good sitters, 
squatting closely, and covering more eggs than 
one would imagine possible. They are, too, care- 
ful mothers, and extraordinarily courageous in 
protecting their young. It is not an uncommon 
sight to see a Game hen, especially an Old Eng- 
lish, attacking a cow or pig that happens to ap- 
proach too close to her brood. 

A Properly Constructed Nest is just as impor- 
tant as a good sitter (Figs. 5, 6, and 7). It is 
easily made, but that does not mean to say that 
it can be made anyhow, as some people appear 
to think. We may differ in the details of its 
construction, but there are certain unalterable 
rules which we must abide by. For example, 
the box in which it is to be made must be large 



36 



CHICKENS 



enough — not less than eighteen inches each way. 
It must have a wire or lattice door at the front, 
some holes bored at the sides near the top, and a 
piece of wood about three inches deep nailed 
across the foot to prevent the material from 
falling out when the door is open. A floor is 




Fig. 7. — Sitting Nest with a Wiee Door 

desirable as a protection against mice and rats. 
The interior should have a thorough dressing of 
lime wash containing a little carbolic, and when 
this is dry the nest can be made. The box need 
not be waterproof, for it is best placed in a shed 
at a convenient height from the floor, and several 
may be put one upon the other in tiers, so long 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 37 

as the interiors of all are clearly visible to the 
attendant. Before the actual nesting material 
is used, a shovelful of garden soil must be placed 
at the bottom of the box, and worked into the 
corners with the hand until a saucer-shaped 
hollow is formed. This must neither be too deep 
nor too flat. If the former the outside eggs 
will roll down upon those in the centre, when 
they would probably be broken by the hen, and 
if it is not deep enough the eggs will spread 
about, and the sitter will be unable to cover 
them. Having made the foundation satisfacto- 
rily, and beaten the soil down fairly firm with the 
palm of the hand, some short, soft hay must be 
put upon it as a lining material. It requires a 
little practice to make the hay lie evenly and 
smooth, but if it is shaken lightly into its place, 
not much being used at a time, and then worked 
down by a circular motion of the hand, a firm, 
well shaped nest will be the result. Rather more 
hay should be used in winter and spring than in 
warm weather. (See Fig. 8.) 

Protecting Sitting Hens from Vermin. — Before 
the broody hen is put upon the nest she must be 
thoroughly drenched with insect-powder, getting 



3S CHICKENS 

it well underneath the feathers. It is desirable 
to do this even when there is no vermin visible ; 
and the nest should also be well dusted with the 
powder. There is no doubt that thousands of 
eggs are spoiled every year through the hen be- 
ing irritated by insect vermin, and even if she 
manages to hatch her eggs successfully, she 
cannot rear the chickens when tormented by 
these pests. It is scarcely possible to exaggerate 
the extreme importance of keeping the sitting 
hen free from vermin. 

Placing a Sitting Hen on the Nest.— The best 
time to place a broody upon the nest that has 
been prepared for her is the evening. Some hens 
are naturally more vrild and excitable than 
others, but even these will settle down more 
composedly at dusk. Do not give the broody 
the eggs which she is to sit upon until she has 
become quite used to the nest, or she may break 
them. Let her have half-a-dozen M pot " ones, 
which are cheap enough, for the first day at 
least. In the early months of the year, when 
most of the hatching is done, it is a mistake to 
give a hen a large "clutch." Xine or ten eggs 
are as many as a medium-sized sitter can manage. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 39 

If she has more those on the outside may get 
chilled, and as all the eggs are daily, at least, 
moving their positions in the nest, the whole lot 
may by the date of hatching become addled. 
Again, it must be remembered that a hen cannot 




Fig. 8.— A Well made Nest 

take proper care of a large brood of chickens in 
the colder months. 

Management of the Sitting Hen. — Sitting hens 
must always be handled gently. Once daily 
they require feeding and exercise, and should be 
lifted off their nests, care being taken that their 



40 CHICKENS 

feet or wings do not drag any eggs out with 
them. Provide them with as much cracked 
maize as they care to eat, and a plentiful supply 
of water and grit. A dusting place must be pre- 
pared in one corner of the shed, and while the 
birds are feeding, dusting, and exercising an in- 
spection of the nests should be made. If any 
have been fouled by the birds, or contain broken 
eggs, they should be relined, and the eggs 
thoroughly washed in tepid water. Sometimes 
the breast feathers of a hen who has smashed 
some of her eggs require washing also, or they 
will adhere to the eggs, causing another break- 
age when she is lifted off the following morning. 
During the first week of incubation the broodies 
may be allowed off for five or six minutes, but 
after that period has elapsed twice as long ma) 7 
be allowed them. A hen must always be al- 
lowed to pass her evacuations before she is re- 
placed on the nest, or the latter will assuredly 
be fouled by the following day. Regularity in 
the hour of feeding each day should be strictly 
maintained, for if there is any delay some hens 
may get restless and cause breakages. Quiet- 
ness is necessary in and about the sitting shed, 
and if the nests have open fronts a thick piece of 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



41 



sacking should be suspended across them by way 
of a blind. 

Testing the Eggs on Ninth Day.— At about the 




Fig. 9. — An Egg Tester 

Diaphragms to suit the various sizes of eggs may easily be 
adjusted to the Tester 

ninth day the eggs may be tested, and the un- 



42 CHICKENS 

fertile ones picked out. Some people advise 
more frequent testing, but, in the case of natural 
incubation particularly, I do not consider it 
either necessary or desirable. The operation 
must be conducted at night, and all that is re- 
quired is a candle and a piece of cardboard with 
a hole in it which is rather smaller than the egg 
(Fig. 9). An expert tester does not even require 
that. He simply takes the egg between the 
finger and thumb of his left hand, screening the 
light from his eyes with his right, and holds it 
before a candle, or, better still, a bull's-eye 
lantern. And for all general purposes this is 
enough. An unfertile egg will appear, when 
between the eye and the light, exactly like a 
fresh one. These should be sorted out and used 
either for the chickens or cooking purposes, for 
which they are perfectly good. Those eggs 
which contain chickens will be dark, approach- 
ing opacity, and the air cell at the larger end 
will be distinctly visible. An addled egg ap- 
pears cloudy, and a dark spot, with perhaps a 
red streak near it, may be seen, as if adhering to 
the shell on one side. There will be no doubt 
about the unfertile, or " clear " eggs, but if the 
operator is uncertain as to any of the others he 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 43 

should mark them with a pencil, and test again 
in a week's time. It is during the early months 
of the year, when there are more unfertile eggs, 
or when there is any doubt as to the fecundity 
of the stock birds, that testing has its advantages. 
If two broody hens, for example, were to be set 
the same day, and half the eggs proved to be un- 
fertile, the remainder might be given to one of 
the hens and the other reset with a fresh clutch. 
Addled eggs, again, if left in the nest emit 
poisonous gases, which can be anything but good 
for the living embryos, to which, as we have 
seen, fresh, pure air is so essential. 

The Period of Hatching. — At the nineteenth 
day the sitting hen should not be lifted off the 
nest until it has been ascertained whether the 
eggs are beginning to "chip." This may be 
done by placing the hand under the bird's breast 
and gently raising her up. If none of the eggs 
shows signs of hatching she may be lifted off as 
usual, but if any are starred (see Fig. 10) she is 
best left alone, a small quantity of grain being 
placed within reach. All being well, the chickens 
should hatch from the twentieth to the twenty- 
first day, without any attention being bestowed 



44 CHICKENS 

upon them by the attendant. In fact, the less he 
has to do with them the better. Once, perhaps, 
when he thinks the hatch is rather more than 
half completed, he may gently slip his hand 
under the hen and remove the empty shells, but 
to be continually " having a peep " is not con- 
ducive to the best results. It not infrequently 
happens that some embryos fail, through weak- 
ness or other cause, to ma^e their way out of the 
shells. The beak is protruding, but it does not 
seem to progress in its way round the shell. In 
such instances the chick may be assisted by 
gently chipping the shell away, or cracking it a 
little distance from the beak each way. If the 
membrane, which lies directly under the shell, 
looks quite white and dry it may be torn a little 
also, but on no account should it otherwise be 
touched. To tear it before the embryo is ready 
to hatch will cause profuse bleeding and death. 
Generally speaking, however, chickens which 
have to be thus assisted are seldom of much use, 
and rather than irritate the hen by too much 
attention, and delay the removal of the remain- 
ing chickens from the nest, we would sacrifice 
the one or two which have not the strength to 
extricate themselves. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



45 



Fallacy of Moistening the Nest. — As a rule^ 
most people come to the very natural conclusion 
that when a chicken dies in the shell, having 
partly hatched, it has done so through lack of 
moisture. It has consequently become the habit 
to apply water to the nest in some way or other. 
The eggs are sprinkled, or a cupful of warm 
water is poured round the edge of the earthy 




Fig. 10. — Eggs in Process of Hatching 



foundation of the nest. That this is entirely a 
mistake has been proven beyond the shadow of 
a doubt. The nest may be as dry as tinder all 
through, and the eggs, other things being in 
order, will hatch perfectly well. There is not 
one egg in a thousand set naturally that fails to 



46 CHICKENS 

hatch through lack of moisture. If we go to 
Nature and see what her methods are in regard 
to this matter, what do we find ? Nests placed 
in the driest situations. There are various de- 
vices for protecting the eggs against wet. On 
the Wood Pigeon's platform of sticks the eggs 
are exposed to the air, which is diffused through 
the coarsely- woven material on which they are 
laid. The Pheasant chooses the driest place 
available in which to lay her eggs. Wild Ducks 
leave the rivers for high ground, and sometimes 
nest on a ledge of rock, or even in the fork of a 
tree. Sheldrakes, another waterfowl, seek the 
dry, sandy rabbit-burrow in which to make their 
nests. And so one might go on citing instances 
to prove that moisture applied to the nest is a 
mistake. For many years we have set hens in 
the driest of nests in the driest of sheds, and 
even when the springs have been exceptionally 
rainless, with east wind blowing for weeks, the 
chickens — and ducklings, too — have invariably 
hatched well. Indeed, it is probable that more 
chickens are drowned in the shell than the con- 
trary. An egg has sufficient moisture in itself 
to enable the chicken to extricate itself easily, 
and it is only when the eggs are exposed to ex- 






AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 47 

cessive evaporation, as they are sometimes under 
artificial conditions, that moisture is necessary. 
For instance, in an hydro-incubator we apply 
water by means of a moisture tray. Why? 
Because the evaporation would otherwise be so 
great that the contents of the eggs would be 
dried up. The moisture and ventilation are 
made to balance each other, so that the egg 
neither loses its contents by undue evaporation 
nor the reverse. Let me persuade the beginner, 
therefore, to leave the water alone when dealing 
with sitting hens. If he has chickens " dead in 
the shell " let him look for other causes for the 
mortality. 



CHAPTER VI 
ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION 

The practice of hatching eggs artificially is 
older than history. The mammals, or egg-ovens, 
which may to-day be seen in Burma, and a few 
other places at the mouth of the Nile, extended 
at one period throughout the most important 
towns of the East. In these great incubators, 
crude as they are — being merely erections of 
" brick" heated by fires of straw and camel dung 
placed around the outer walls — the Egyptians 
hatch chickens with signal success. With no 
thermometers, thermostats, moisture trays, nor 
any of the other contrivances connected with a 
modern incubator, these primitive operators, 
with centuries of inherited practice at their 
backs, know not what failure is. From father 
to son the " secrets " of the profession have 
been handed down, and every year these huge 
" ovens " — sometimes measuring one hundred 
feet in length — turn out hundreds of thousands 
of chickens, and that against many of the most 

48 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 49 

important principles of artificial incubation ! In- 
teresting as the subject is, space will not permit 
us to enter further into the matter, nor to give 
more than a brief glance at the history of incu- 
bation in later European times. 

Earliest Type of Incubator.— The first serious 
attempts toward solving the problem of hatching 
chickens artificially were made in France, but 
most of them were attended with ill-success. 
Reaumur, apparently acting on the suggestion 
supplied by the mound-building turkey, already 
mentioned, hatched chickens fairly successfully 
under heaps of fermenting manure ; but it was 
not until 1845 that the first incubator with a 
self-acting valve was constructed. It was in- 
vented by M. Vallee, of the Jardin des Plantes 
(Paris), and had a " run " of some notoriety. 
Then followed a series of others in this and 
other countries, which were all more or less im- 
practicable owing to the constant watchfulness 
which they demanded on account of the imper- 
fection of the regulating apparatus. England 
lent her talent to the subject and introduced sev- 
eral models, some of which did good work. But 
not only was it apparent that a reliable device 



50 



CHICKENS 



for regulating temperature had yet to be discov- 
ered, but the relation between ventilation and 
moisture was a stumbling-block over which most 
of these early operators and inventors tripped. 

First Type of Hydro- Incubators.— In 1877 




Fig. 11.— A Modern Incubator 

the hydro-incubator was brought out, and it 
marked a step still further in the desired direc- 
tion. But it was not until some years later, 
when a Mr. Hearson invented and patented his 
capsule regulator, that modern incubation was 
firmly established. With this little capsule the 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 51 

problem of automatic adjustment of temperature 
was mastered, and since the expiration of its pat- 
ent most machines are fitted with it, or some- 
thing similar to it. The student of incubation 
will here do well to understand what this capsule 
is made of, and how it works. We all know 
that when water boils the steam that is given off 
is hundreds of times greater in volume than the 
water ; that if the lid of a kettle, even if only 
partly filled with water, were sealed down, the 
latter would burst owing to the expansion of 
the liquid within. Most liquids boil at certain 
temperatures under normal conditions — viz., 
water, 212 deg. F. ; alcohol, 173 deg. F. ; ether, 
94 deg. F. ; and all of these expand when they 
have attained their boiling-point. With that 
knowledge in mind, the inventors of the capsule 
introduced between two plates of brass a liquid 
which has been well called "compensated ether." 
The edges of the brass plates are soldered to- 
gether, with the liquid in between. The obvious 
result is that when the capsule is subjected to 
heat it expands, owing to the vaporization of the 
liquid it contains, and the particular liquid which 
is used in making these capsules responds to a 
temperature of about 98 deg. 



52 CHICKENS 

Features of a Modern Hydro-Incubator. — But 
before going on to discuss the actual working of 
the capsule and automatic regulation of the tem- 
perature which it to so great an extent ensures, it 
will be necessary to understand the other main 
features of a modern incubator. Almost all in- 
cubators are put together on the same principle, 
although they may differ in detail. At the up- 
per part of the incubator in Fig. 11, a copper tank 
of water, AA, is placed, and through it a flue 
from the lamp is passed. In the illustration the 
flue, LL, is shown coming out on the left side of 
the machine, but in reality it traverses the length 
of the tank and returns, in horseshoe shape, to the 
end at which the lamp is situated. V is a 
chimney directly over the lamp, and upon it a 
damper, F, is resting, so that the whole of the 
heat must pass through the tank by way of the 
flue, LL. Raise the damper, however, and most, 
if not all, of the heat will escape at F, scarcely 
any passing through the tank. So it will be 
seen that by raising or lowering the damper we 
can increase or decrease the temperature of the 
tank, and, of course, the egg-chamber beneath it. 

Now it is this regulation of temperature which 
is effected by the thermostatic capsule. In the 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 53 

illustration the damper, F, is seen to be suspended 
from a lever, G, which at its extreme left is 
hinged to a metal casting. At a little distance 
from the hinged end a piece of stiff wire, 0, 
passes downward, through a tube in the tank, 
into the egg-chamber, its lowest extremity resting 
on the thermostatic capsule, S, which is fixed to 
a rigid metal bracket. 

It will now be understood that we have, by- 
means of this wire or " connecting-rod," a direct 
communication between the egg-chamber and the 
lever and damper. Moreover, we shall see how 
this regulating apparatus becomes automatic. 
Supposing that the incubator is working at the 
required temperature, the damper being about 
one eighth of an inch off the top of the chimney, 
and we take the egg-drawer out for a few min- 
utes, we find the damper almost immediately 
sinks upon the chimney, owing to the flattening 
of the capsule on account of the lowering of the 
temperature. But replace the drawer, allow the 
heat to accumulate, and the capsule will again be 
distended. The wire, O, resting upon it, will be 
pushed upward, with the result that the lever is 
raised and the damper again lifted off the 
chimney. 



54 CHICKENS 

It will be understood, therefore, that when 
once this apparatus is properly regulated, it 
scarcely matters how high or how low (within 
reasonable limits) the lamp flame may be, the 
temperature will be kept uniform. Any excess 
of heat will make the capsule bulge, raise the 
damper, and so let it pass out of the chimney 
rather than through the tank. And, on the con- 
trary, if the outside temperature is low or the 
lamp flame insufficient, the little damper will lie 
flat on the chimney, sending all the available 
heat into the tank. On this principle all modern 
regulating devices are constructed. Thermostats 
differ very considerably, as we shall see, but the 
lever and damper are common to all. 

Turning again to the illustration, we see the 
walls of the incubator are packed with some non- 
conductive material, MM. The egg-tray, KK, 
has a bottom of perforated zinc, which is slightly 
concave, so that the outer eggs, which are 
naturally cooler than those in the centre, will be 
nearer the source of heat than the latter. DD 
are holes to admit air, and this traverses a water 
tray, over which is placed a damp piece of sack- 
ing, passes upward between the eggs, and escapes 
at the holes, EE, at the back of the machine. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



55 



Non-Moisture Incubators. — A comparatively 
few years ago a " non-moisture " incubator was 
brought out in the United States. For some 
time operators were sceptical of these machines, 
which had no tank and no applied moisture. 




Fig. 12.— Cypher's Non-Moisture Incubator 

Now, however, they are as generally used as the 
others, and there is no doubt that they have won 
their reputation upon merit. Fig. 12 represents 
one of these machines, of which it is not difficult 
to understand the working. At one end there 
is a lamp, the heat from which passes up the 



56 CHICKENS 

middle and down the outside of a "heater." 
Through a separate chamber in this latter the 
fresh air, being first warmed, owing to its com- 
ing in contact with the walls of the flue, enters 
directly into the top of the machine. It then 
passes downward through a porous diaphragm 
of felt-like substance into the egg-chamber. 
Continuing through the egg-drawer of wire 
gauze, it again percolates through a double 
diaphragm, and escapes at the bottom. There 
are no ventilating holes whatever (excepting one 
underneath, which is seldom opened), for it will 
be seen that the constant flow of fresh, warm air 
through the machine is sufficient. But it is in 
the slowness of this circulation that the secret 
lies. The air is diffused as it traverses the in- 
cubator, and the ventilation, which is also the 
source of heat, is a purely " molecular " one. 
We must, however, return to this part of the 
subject later. 

The Thermostat used in these incubators con- 
sists of two or more strong strips of steel with 
alternate strips of aluminium or zinc in between, 
all being riveted together at each end. A con- 
necting-rod passing through the base of the 






AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



57 



lever, where it balances on a knife-edge, down- 
ward through the incubator is buttoned top and 
bottom by a nut working on a thread. Now, 
when the thermostat is subjected to heat, the 






Fig. 13. — Removing the Diaphragms 



aluminium (or zinc) expands, and as the latter is 
fixed to the steel at either end there is nothing 
for it but to bow, or bulge. The result is that 
the connecting-rod tightens on the base of the 



58 CHICKENS 

lever, causing the damper to lift off the chimney, 
and the apparatus, once it is adjusted, is perfectly 
self-regulating to half a degree. The principle 
is the same as that before described, the differ- 
ence being only in the thermostat. 

Improvements in Incubators. — Many improve- 
ments have been made in later times upon these 
atmospheric incubators, chief of which may be 
mentioned the adoption of removable diaphragms 
for cleaning purposes. All air is laden with fine 
particles of dust, and the pores of the felt must 
in time become choked, rendering free circulation 
impossible. Now the operator can remove all 
diaphragms, give them a good brushing and air- 
ing, and replace them in a few minutes. An- 
other " improvement," from the buyer's point of 
view, is the price of these incubators, as well as 
others. Competition has rendered it necessary 
for all manufacturers to reduce the retail cost of 
their machines down to reasonable figures. 

Having briefly described the general working 
principles of the usual types of incubators, the 
beginner will be to some extent prepared for 
practical operations. Many important details 
have been omitted, but these wall be referred to 
as occasion arises in the next few pages. 



CHAPTER YII 

ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION IN PRACTICE 

Some consideration must be given to the room 
in which the incubator is to work. Some years 
ago many people supposed that a cellar, often 
damp and musty, was the most suitable place to 
run the machine in, the idea, no doubt, having 
arisen in that erroneous belief regarding the ne- 
cessity for moisture already referred to. On the 
other hand, a cellar is usually quiet and its tem- 
perature even, and on that account, always sup- 
posing it to be fairly dry and well ventilated (this 
is essential), it may make a suitable operating 
room. Any ordinary room, however, will do, 
provided it is of a fairly normal temperature, 
has efficient ventilation without draught, is in a 
quiet place, and so built that it is free from vi- 
bration. A vacant bedroom often serves as an 
excellent operating place if the floor is tolerably 
firm. 

Placing the Incubator. — Always place the incu- 
bator so that the lamp is not in a direct draught, 

59 



60 CHICKENS 

such as may exist between the door and the 
chimney. Tank machines, not being sold with 
legs, must be placed on a table or their own 
packing case, and these incubators especially 
must be set quite level. Those which have glass 
doors to the egg-chambers ought to face the 
light, so that the thermometer may be read 
without difficulty. 

Temperature. — Full directions being always 
sent out with each incubator, it would serve no 
useful purpose here to enter into the subject of 
putting the machine together and setting it go- 
ing. Any intelligent beginner can, by studying 
the simple directions, get along all right, so far 
as the actual working is concerned. Moreover, 
all machines differ in minute points, and their 
respective makers should know how to instruct 
the beginner if any one does. It must, however, 
be borne in mind that incubators, even though 
they be "automatic self-regulating," are only so 
within certain limits. Frequent regulation may 
be necessary when the outside temperature is 
very variable. Most operators, for instance, find 
it gives better results if, say, the machine is run- 
ning at 104 deg., with an outside temperature 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 61 

(i. e., in the room) of 60 cleg., they increase the 
heat of the egg-chamber 1 deg. for every 10 deg. 
decrease below the 60 deg., and vice versa. 
Thus the thermometer on or near the eggs 
should stand at 105 deg. when the room is at 50 
deg., or at 103 deg. with an outside temperature 
of 70 deg. Generally speaking, when the chick- 
ens hatch late — after the twenty-first day — it 
indicates a lack of heat during the process of in- 
cubation. On the other hand, if the eggs begin 
to chip early, say on the eighteenth or nineteenth 
day, one may generally put it down to an exces- 
sive temperature. This connection between the 
heat of the room and that of the incubators 
placed in it is a very important one, and should 
not be lost sight of at any time. It is not desir- 
able to run an incubator in winter in a room 
that seldom rises above 45 deg. at that season. 

An even temperature is, of course, very essen- 
tial to successful hatching. Most incubator 
manufacturers recommend a temperature of 104 
deg. in the centre of the egg tray when the 
room is about normal. In atmospherics we have 
found that 102^ deg. to 103 deg., as recom- 
mended by some of their American makers, is 
too low unless the room is very warm indeed, 



62 CHICKENS 

and that 104 deg., with a hatching temperature 
of 105 deg., is better. 

Placing the Eggs in the Incubator. — Before the 
eggs are placed in the incubator (see Chap. IV) 
the latter should have been going steadily for a 
couple of days. It naturally follows that when 
a tray of cold eggs is put into a warm chamber 
the temperature of the latter quickly runs down, 
and it is some hours before it regains its proper 
level. Morning is therefore the best time to 
start actual operations, for then one can see the 
temperature readjusted before nightfall. 

Management of an Incubator. — The directions 
supplied with the machine must not only be in- 
telligently carried out in respect to the regula- 
ting, etc., of the machine, but also as regards the 
care of the lamp. The best oil must be used, 
and a new wick each time the incubator is reset 
should replace the old one. Every day at a 
certain hour the lamp must be " trimmed," and 
that implies thorough cleaning. When once the 
wick burns straight, without tails, it should never 
be cut, but have the crust wiped off with a bit 
of flannel, and the surface smoothed down with 
some flat object, such as the blade of a knife. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 63 

There must be a good flame burning always, and 
with a little practice it will not be difficult to 
get it the same height every day. If the flame 
is too high or too low, smoking occurs, which 
chokes the flues, so obstructing the free circula- 
tion of heat. Where gas can be obtained we 
would have it fitted to all machines which are 
adapted for it. Even where there is no local gas 
supply it would pay extensive operators to utilize 
acetylene or gasoline. Lamps are, at the best, 
messy things, and the work they entail is con- 
siderable when a number of incubators are at 
work. 

Turning the Eggs. — During the first twenty- 
four hours the eggs are best left alone; after 
that, and until the eighteenth day (we are speak- 
ing of hens' eggs) they must be turned twice 
daily. On each occasion they should be given 
a half-turn only, and the first thing in the morn- 
ing and last thing before dark are the best oc- 
casions for the operation. It is advantageous 
also to occasionally change the relative positions 
of the eggs in the drawer, those from the centre 
being placed at the sideband the reverse. In the 
non-moisture incubators referred to already the 



64 CHICKENS 

inclined trays and method of moving and turn- 
ing a whole row of eggs with one movement 
obviate the necessity for so much handling. As 
soon as the eggs are turned, on the first occasion 
in the mornings, the trays may at once be re- 
placed in the incubator, but in the evening the 
eggs must be left out for an "airing." The 
period allotted for this must depend upon the 
season or temperature, and also upon the age of 
the embryos. For the first week less airing is 
required than in later days. If it is very cold, 
five minutes during the first eight days and then 
ten will be enough, but in warm weather eggs 
may often be left out for more than twice as 
long. Indeed, it is probable that embryos more 
often suffer from insufficient airing than the 
contrary. The eggs should never be placed in 
a direct draught when out of the incubator, and 
they must on all occasions be handled gently. 

Object of Turning the Eggs.— In turning and 
airing the eggs we are doing no more than the 
sitting hen does. She daity, by a shuffling move- 
ment of her body, not only turns the eggs but 
moves their positions in the nest. And if we 
refer to Chapter II we can understand how 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



65 



necessary this turning is. The yolk of the egg 
we read, floats in the albumen, and carries on 
its upper surface the germ-spot, from which life 




Fig. 14. — A Special Incubator House 

begins. As it is lighter than the albumen, and 
the chalazae are attached rather below the line of 
its axis, or diameter, it rides high, being sepa- 



\ 



66 CHICKENS 

rated from the shell by a comparatively thin 
layer of albumen only. Now if the egg is al- 
ways left on one side, that thin layer of albumen 
isf apt to evaporate, which means that the yolk 
adheres to the shell, and the germ dies. But if 
we turn the eggs round, a fresh quantity of 
albumen is every time brought between the yolk 
and the shell, so that such an accident as the 
yolk sticking and the egg becoming addled is 
prevented. 

Testing the Eggs.—Some time between the 
seventh and ninth days the eggs should be tested, 
the object being to remove the unfertile ones. 
The operation is a simple one, and with a little 
practice one can carry it out without the as- 
sistance of any elaborate apparatus. Too much 
testing, as we have already said, is not desirable, 
and in the case of artificial incubation the be- 
ginner must be very careful that he does not get 
the eggs chilled during the process. He is par- 
ticularly liable to do this when there is a large 
tray of eggs to get through, and it must be re- 
membered that the embryo is more delicate, 
more susceptible to extremes of temperature, 
when at about a week old than at any other 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 67 

time. A piece of warm flannel spread over the 
egg tray while testing is going on will often pre- 
vent chilling. 

Chilled Eggs. — Accidents not infrequently 
happen during incubation. The hen may sud- 
denly forsake her nest, leaving the eggs to be- 
come cold ; the incubator lamp may go out ; or 
the operator may forget to replace the trays in 
the machines after airing, with the same result. 
During the first week or ten days of incubation 
eggs that have been quite chilled seldom recover, 
but at any time after that the embryos, if they 
are strong, can stand great extremes. If only a 
few eggs, say a hen's clutch, have become chilled, 
the best thing to do with them is to immerse 
them in a pail of water that is just comfortably 
warm to the hand. There they may be left until 
another hen is procured; or they may remain 
there for five or ten minutes and then be put in 
an incubator that is already going. It is a more 
difficult matter when a whole tray of eggs have 
been chilled, and the best one can do is to dip a 
square of flannel in water heated to about 105 
deg., wring it, lay it over the eggs, and place the 
tray in the incubator — the door of the latter 



68 



CHICKENS 



being open just enough to allow the steam to 
escape. Such measures, if promptly carried out, 
will often save a hatch. 




Fig. 15. — A Good Hatch — Forty-nine Chickens 
from Fifty Eggs 

Overheated Eggs.— Eggs subjected to a tern- 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 69 

perature that is too high are not so easily re- 
vived, although it is difficult to say what the 
"baking- point" is. During the first ten days 
exposure to 110 deg. or 112 deg. for a few hours 
will often kill every embryo, whereas later on it 
appears to have but little effect. There is not 
much that can be done for such eggs beyond in- 
stantly removing them, and airing until a ther- 
mometer with its bulb resting on an egg (not an 
unfertile one) stands at about 60 deg. 

Thermometers and Their Use.— A word or two 
here, before going on, with regard to thermome- 
ters will not be out of place. Everything de- 
pends upon these instruments, and they must 
consequently be absolutely reliable. Cheap ones 
are an abomination. Most of those sent out by 
incubator makers are tested and well-seasoned, 
but if there is any doubt as to their correctness 
the operator may test them for himself. The 
doubtful one may be tested by comparison with 
one that is known to be reliable, both being sub- 
jected to the same heat. If a thermometer be 
inverted and gently tapped, the mercury should 
run down to the bottom, thus showing the com- 
plete exclusion of air in the tube. Immersed in 



70 CHICKENS 

ice the thermometer should stand at 32 deg. If 
held in the steam issuing from the spout of a 
boiling kettle (care being taken not to immerse 
it too suddenly, or it may break), the mercury 
ought to register 212 deg. Scarcely five per 
cent, of the cheap instruments seen in shop 
windows can stand these simple trials. 

Moisture and Ventilation. — Equally important 
as the proper temperature is the right proportion 
between moisture and ventilation. The two are 
inseparably connected, but it has taken makers 
of incubators down to the most recent times 
to thoroughly grasp that fact, and make their 
machines accordingly. In the earlier attempts 
at incubation the chickens either died in the 
shell through insufficient ventilation, or they 
were " dried up " through having too much. 
Then people went to the other extremes, and, 
hoping to balance matters, moisture was used too 
lavishly, with the result that the embryos were 
" drowned," the moisture being in excess of the 
evaporation. It was a long time before manu- 
facturers of hydro-incubators mastered this sub- 
ject. Even to-day some of them are apt to 
stumble over it. 



, 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 71 

The beginner who wishes to become a success- 
ful operator must see clearly through this sub- 
ject of ventilation and moisture. If he begins 
with the knowledge that an egg has sufficient 
moisture in itself for all its needs, and that it will 
hatch successfully without any being added to it, 
so long as it is not robbed of that moisture which 
it has, he will be half-way toward understanding 
the question. We have referred to this subject 
at the end of Chapter V, and a study of eggs 
being incubated under natural conditions is of 
the utmost value. 

It has been said that we may look at a hen 
sitting for a lifetime and not gather much infor- 
mation. Eeading literally, we may take it that 
the writer was speaking for himself ! One of the 
many lessons that we can learn of the sitting 
hen, or wild bird, is that she not only for choice 
selects a quiet, dry place for her nest, but that 
the eggs she sits upon are entirely covered by her 
feathers. Yet this covering is exceedingly light. 
It is essentially porous, allowing the air to have 
free access to the eggs from all sides. There is, 
however, no rapid circulation of air, no draughts, 
no evaporating currents. The circulation is 
"molecular." The air is slowly diffused through 



72 CHICKENS 

the screen of feathers. This fact the later 
makers of incubators began to realize and work 
upon. Again, do not the old egg-ovens of Egypt 
hatch eggs with unfailing success ? And in them 
there is practically no draught and no moisture. 
It was these facts which not only led to the 
adoption of " non-moisture " incubators, but to 
the better balancing of ventilation and moisture 
in the hydros. If we refer again to the diagram 
of the incubator (Fig. 11), we shall see that the 
air enters at the bottom of the machine, passes 
through a piece of sacking which is kept wet, 
traverses the egg-chamber, and escapes at EE. 
Now if it were not for the moisture taken up by 
the air the eggs, owing to the rapid evaporation 
caused by direct currents of air, would become 
" dried up." The fresh air is, however, essential, 
as we have seen. It cannot be shut out, so we 
counteract its evaporating effect by making it 
take up moisture when it enters the egg-chamber. 
And the makers of this type of machine have 
now got the due proportion between moisture 
and ventilation just about perfect. Of course 
we know that the quantity of aqueous vapor 
which the air takes up depends on the tem- 
perature, but then, so long as we can maintain 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 73 

an even temperature in the egg-chamber, the 
amount of moisture will not vary. 

It will now be understood how important it is 
to keep the moisture trays properly filled when 
working an incubator. The piece of sacking as 
well as the tray on which it rests should be well 
scalded with hot water and a little carbolic after 
every hatch, otherwise the air entering the 
machine is liable to be fouled. 

The reader will now, perhaps, be able to see 
also why atmospheric incubators, like those men- 
tioned in Chapter VI, do not require added mois- 
ture. The principle of the circulation of the air 
through porous diaphragms is the same as Nature 
has adopted in the case of the sitting hen. It is 
because there is no undue evaporation by direct 
currents of air that moisture is not required. 
And the doubt that was cast upon the efficacy of 
this class of machine when first introduced is being 
entirely dispelled by the success which attends 
the use of them. Was it not ever the same with 
things that are new, that depart so far from the 
accustomed type ? 

Failures and Their Causes. — If the beginner has 
a run of failures which he cannot account for, a 



74 CHICKENS 

study of the air-cell (see Fig. 2) will often help 
him to elucidate the mystery. At the commence- 
ment of incubation, or in a fresh egg, the air-cell 
will be very small, but as development progresses 
we find it steadily increasing through evapora- 
tion. It has been found that while, as we have 
already seen, too much evaporation is injurious to 
the developing embryo, a certain amount for the 
proper enlargement of the air-cell is just as essen- 
tial. An excess of moisture during incubation 
means that the contents of the egg are reduced 
so little by evaporation that the chicken at the 
point of hatching is too big for the egg. It so 
fills the space that it cannot turn round, which it 
must do to extricate itself. On the contrary, if 
the evaporation has been too great, and the 
moisture insufficient, the chicken will be too small. 
It will be tied down, as it were, by a tough 
and leathery membrane, and not infrequently 
"glued " to the shell. 

No hard and fast rules can be laid down with 
regard to the treatment of eggs from a study of 
their air-cells, and too much fussing and med- 
dling is as bad as no attention at all. But by a 
careful study of the air-cells when testing, and at 
hatching time, by keeping a record of the tern- 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 75 

perature, weather, and other details, and by an 
intelligent comparison of results, the operator 
will ultimately be able to tell fairly accurately 
whether his eggs are going on all right, and if 
they are not he will not be without a remedy. 

After the Eighteenth Day.— The eggs in the in- 
cubator tray should not be turned after the 
eighteenth or nineteenth day, but a moderate air- 
ing until the first one begins to chip (Fig. 10) is 
desirable. After that the drawer should not be 
opened of tener than is absolutely necessary. And 
here we would urge again for the more universal 
use of glass doors or backs to incubators, so that 
the operator can see what is going on inside with- 
out opening the egg-chamber. Great as that ad- 
vantage is, it is only one of the many that might 
be mentioned in favor of glass doors. 

At hatching time, and a little before, the tem- 
perature will naturally increase in the incubator, 
and it may be allowed to do so to some extent. 
In very cold weather we have found 105 deg. to 
106 deg. not too high for atmospheric incubators, 
and rather less for the others. With a room at 
40 deg. to 45 deg. during the day, and less than 
that at night (not that we would recommend 



76 CHICKENS 

such a place to others), we have hatched most 
successfully at a regular temperature of 108 deg. 
during the last two days ! That was going to ex- 
tremes, but it serves to show that the beginner 
must watch other things than the thermometer in 
the incubator. 

Newly-hatched Chicks. — When a good number 
of chickens are hatched they should be removed 
to the " drying-box," and at the same time the 
empty shells may be cleared out. This must be 
done quickly, however, and the drawer immedi- 
ately closed. In most atmospheric incubators, 
there is a far better way of disposing of the 
chickens as they hatch. The egg-tray is some- 
what narrower than the back-to-front measure- 
ment of the chamber, so that there is a space be- 
tween it and the glass front of two or three 
inches. When the chickens hatch they crawl to- 
ward the glass and topple over into the " nurs- 
ery " below. This latter is "floored " b}^ one of 
the diaphragms already mentioned, and it is, of 
course, several degrees cooler than in the tray 
above it. Here the chickens can be fed and left 
for a few days, if necessary, in a condition which 
is impossible, if only on account of size, in ordi- 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 77 

nary " drying-boxes." Of course, as they are 
now made, this plan could not be adopted by 
hydro-incubators. 

General Remarks. — The same remarks, as re- 
gards the treatment of eggs during hatching, and 
especially of those which appear to require help, 
which we have made on page 44, apply equally 
here, and with those, together with the direc- 
tions sent out with all good incubators, the 
intelligent novice should be able to get along 
fairly well. Having chickens " dead in the shell " 
will be his most frequent cry, and some of the 
causes for this we have already pointed out in 
Chapter V. 

Let it be ever remembered that, although there 
are some death-traps called incubators on the 
market, failure is far more often due to the eggs 
themselves or the operator than to the machine. 
And, finally, let it be borne in mind that when 
we have an indifferent hatch from an incubator, 
the failure and disappointment appear so much 
greater because of the number of eggs concerned. 
We are generally satisfied if we get eight strong 
chickens out of a dozen eggs incubated by a hen, 
but if we had twelve dozen eggs in an incubator 



78 



CHICKENS 



and hatched ninety-six chickens, leaving nearly 
sixty eggs to account for, would we be so satis- 
fied ? Some of us would write an irate letter to 
the maker of the machine, and do and say various 
unreasonable things which a little thought might 
prevent, because the percentage of failures is the 
same in both instances, only in the one it is 
brought into higher relief. 



CHAPTER VIII 
REARING THE CHICKENS WITH HENS 

Having hatched a brood of chickens, the first 
thing to do is to remove them and the hen to a 
suitable coop. This must be amply large enough 
(not less than eighteen inches each way) and 
waterproof, but it need not be an expensive af- 
fair. 

A good coop may be made out of a sugar- 
box by any amateur joiner, and such a one will 
last for many years with an occasional applica- 
tion of tar or paint. If it be for use in the open, 
and the great majority of coops are, it must be 
storm-proof. Furthermore, it is always desirable 
to nail two stout ribs of wood across the bottom, 
one on each side, so as to keep it off the damp 
ground. The front must be made of two or three, 
movable bars of wood fixed in a perpendicular 
position, and a night shutter is essential, more 
for the purpose of keeping out vermin than for 
protection against cold. Indeed, it will be found 
that overheating and stuffiness are the main evils 
to be avoided in chicken-rearing, and that fresh 

79 



80 CHICKENS 

air, even if it be cold, so long as it is not in the 
nature of a draught, is an element which the 
rearer cannot afford to ignore. 

Floors to Coops. — There is much difference of 
opinion upon the desirability of having floors to 
coops, but most practical rearers admit that in 
the early months of the year they are a great 
help to the chickens. There is another argu- 
ment, and a very strong one, in favor of floors, 
and that is they economize not only the ground 
in the rearing place, but the manure is saved. A 
coop that has not a floor must be frequently 
moved on to fresh turf, and the inevitable result 
is, especially where a number are in use, that a 
very large area of ground soon becomes very 
effectually fouled. Where rearing is done late 
in the season, and space is of little consideration 
— as in the case of pheasant-rearing — then bot- 
tomless coops may be employed with advantage. 

Position for the Coops,— While preparing the 
coop for the reception of the brood, the hen may 
be given a good meal of grain, or barley-meal 
and middlings, while she is still on the nest, the 
food being placed in a small tin or feeder. At 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 81 

the same time it will be well to notice that the 
chickens are all right, and that they cannot 
tumble out of the nest or into corners and so get 
lost or chilled. Put the coop in a sunny situa- 
tion on dry, short turf, if possible, or a garden 
path. Where rearing is done somewhat exten- 
sively a piece of ground should already have been 
prepared as a nursery, and in it the coops or 
brooders may be placed in rows at a convenient 
distance apart. The coop must be littered with 
dry earth or peat-moss. If the weather is very 
cold some chaff may be sprinkled over the former. 
Some hens, when placed in the coop first, com- 
mence scratching and shuffling so vigorously in 
the litter that the chickens often get hurt or 
half-buried, if not killed. To avoid this, it is a 
good plan to get an old sack, fold it into a square 
the size of the coop bottom, and lay it on the lit- 
ter. It can remain there until the chickens are 
a little stronger, say for a couple of days, and 
then be removed. If the coops are all of about 
the same size a few squares of old heavy carpet 
may be kept entirely for this purpose. 

Placing the Chicks in the Coop.— The chickens 
should be carried from the nest to the coop in a 



82 CHICKENS 

small canvas-lined basket, such as those used for 
carrying bantams or pigeons to and from shows, 
when there will be no fear of their being chilled 
by sudden exposure to cold winds. This precau- 
tion is even more important when removing 
chickens from the incubator to the brooder. The 
hen being put into the coop, and the young ones 
after her, the next move should be to provide the 
latter with their first meal. 

The Chicks' First Meal.— For the first meal 
there is nothing like the old-fashioned hard- 
boiled egg and stale bread crumbs, the former 
being well minced and mixed up with the latter. 
A little of this should be sprinkled upon the sack, 
and the chickens will in most cases immediately 
begin to eat. In a couple of hours or so another 
meal may be given, and the following day some 
coarse oatmeal may be added to the mixture. 
Unfertile eggs are just as good as fresh ones 
for the chickens, but this food should not be 
used exclusively nor excessively, and not after 
the third day, unless the chickens are very weak 
and the weather against them. Having discon- 
tinued it gradually, some scalded biscuit-meal 
may be given with the oatmeal, and green food 






AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 83 

added to the bill of fare. One could not well 
exaggerate the importance of a good supply of 
fresh, juicy vegetables, particularly while there 
is no spring growth on the turf. Lettuce, cab- 
bage, and onions can always be obtained and 
the last-named is an excellent vegetable for 
chickens if minced up. They are cheap, alwaj^s 
obtainable, wholesome, and prevent many dis- 
eases. 

Feeding the Chicks Later On. — When the 
chickens have taken to the oatmeal and biscuit- 
meal some dry food may be introduced, a little 
at each meal until the birds get accustomed to 
it. Or some can be put in a small trough so 
that the chickens can help themselves. But be- 
fore going on it would be as well here to say 
something more as regards "dry-feed." Briefly, 
it is a collection of seeds or broken grain mixed 
together in varying proportions, and when it 
was brought out, only a year or two ago, it was 
recommended to rear chickens " from the shell " 
upon it. It was a new thing, and people went 
to extremes with it, and fed chickens with " dry- 
feed " from hatching time onward. And no 
doubt they succeeded, but not so well as if they 



84 CHICKENS 

had used some soft food also, most particularly 
in the earlier stages. Now " dry-feed " has 
settled down into its proper place in the chickens' 
menu. With most practical feeders it is made 
the staple diet, especially for those birds which 
are destined for stock, and in which a steady 
growth is desirable. Its main virtues are these : 
It is easy to use ; there is no mixing to be done, 
and no likelihood of it ever becoming sour if not 
all eaten up by the chickens. It stimulates the 
gizzard and other digestive organs of the birds, 
thus promoting health, and to a great extent 
prevents diarrhoea. It may be used to sprinkle 
in litter to encourage scratching exercise, which 
is impossible with soft foods ; it undoubtedly 
promotes feather growth, and is more sustaining 
when given as a last feed in the evening. For 
rapid development, however, such as is desired 
in market stock, there is no doubt that a larger 
proportion of soft food (which is more quickly 
assimilated) is better, giving grain, say, about 
twice daily — letting one of these feeds be the 
last at night. Of course, in one sense "dry- 
feed " is only an old thing under a new name. 
Broken wheat, millet, and other grains were used 
long ago but it is only quite recently that thos* 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 85 

who cater for the chickens have offered the 
mixture of seeds and kibbled grain known as 
" dry-feed " to the poultry-keeping public. 

Exercise for the Chicks. — As soon as the chick- 
ens are strong enough to move about they should 
be allowed access to a small run placed in front 
of the coop. The advantages derived from 
using such a run are manifold. In the early 
spring the wooden sides protect the chickens 
from the cold winds. The brood is kept to- 
gether, and the individuals learn to know their 
own coop. If there be no such restriction of 
liberty some of the youngsters are often liable 
to wander round to the back of the coop, where 
they may succumb to exposure or be picked up 
by vermin. Feeding must be done outside the 
coop, in the run, as soon as possible, and every 
encouragement given to get the chickens out. 
The hen must not be forgotten, and it is as well 
to give her a good feed of grain and some water 
twice daily. When there is only one or two 
broods being reared, and the weather is fine, 
it is often wise to let the mothers roam with 
their chickens, but that is impossible when there 
are many coops occupied. Care must, however, 



86 CHICKENS 

be taken to notice that the hens do not over- 
tire the chickens, nor trail them through wet 
grass. 

Feeding after the Tenth Day.— When ten days 
or a fortnight old the chickens may have a 
further change of diet. Instead of using oat- 
meal, which is expensive, some fine middlings 
may be mixed with the biscuit-meal ; and it will 
be as well to say here that when scalding the 
latter, or, indeed, mixing water with anything 
for young chickens, one should not use any more 
liquid than is absolutely necessary. An excess 
of fluid in meals — such as biscuit-meal especially 
— will assuredly be followed by diarrhoea. Bice, 
if it can be had at not over four or five cents 
per pound, is a good and economical food to be 
used incidentally with others. It must, however, 
be boiled, well rinsed through with cold water, 
and strained before it is fit to use, and in that 
condition it will keep fresh several days. Just 
before feeding add to it a little fine middlings, 
and stir into a crumbly state. Being of an as- 
tringent nature, rice is valuable as a preventive 
of diarrhoea, but it must not be fed in a sloppy 
or sticky condition. There is much difference of 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 87 

opinion upon the question of giving animal meat 
to young chickens, but most rearers agree that 
they are better without it until about a fortnight 
old. Then, in limited quantities, there is no 
doubt that it assists development, and helps to 
build up strong constitutions. The kind of meat 
which we have found to be the safest is that 
known as "dried " or " granulated." It must be 
scalded before use, and it is best to give it as an 
extra meal by itself, about once a day, or oftener 
as the chickens grow up. It is not an easy 
matter to say how much meat may be given, 
because so much depends upon the time of year, 
age and size of the chickens, and other circum- 
stances. But under normal conditions a dozen 
chickens of a fortnight old may have a good 
tablespoonful measured before scalding at noon 
each day. Green bone should not be given until 
the birds are well feathered — sa} f eight to ten 
weeks old — but bone meal, or " bone dust," as 
it is sometimes called, is useful right through 
the rearing process. For birds that are destined 
for stock, in particular, it may be strongly recom- 
mended. It assists the formation of bone, goes 
far toward preventing crooked breasts (turkey 
rearers may take that hint), and in the earlier 



88 CHICKENS 

stages of growth it acts as a preventive of diar- 
rhoea. 

Feeding after the Third Week. — At the age of 
three weeks to a month the feeding, while being 
sufficiently good, may be conducted on still 
cheaper lines. Biscuit-meal may be gradually 
dispensed with, or only given once a day, and in- 
stead of it ground oats be used. This latter, if 




Fig. 16.— A Flower-Pot Water Vessel for Chicks 

mixed with an equal proportion of middlings, 
makes an excellent food, and it is one that can 
be kept in stock from this stage right through to 
maturity. Then there is maize meal, which, if 
scalded with boiling water and stirred crumbly 
when cold, or nearly so, with middlings, will 
make a useful change at any time for the 
broods. "Dry-feed," as before described, may 
also be gradually stopped, and wheat given in- 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 89 

stead, and the latter can be often substituted by 
corn (cracked or " kibbled "), barley, and buck- 
wheat. 

Many people have facilities for obtaining what 
might be called here " local products " — such as 
stale bread, brewer's grains, potato, and scraps 
from hotels, and these all come in useful if fed 
judiciously. Bread ought to have some fat with 
it, or, soaked in milk, it will make a food that 
chickens will thrive on. Scraps from the table 
must be sweet and clean, and if well boiled and 
mixed crumbly with middlings, after being 
minced or chopped, they will afford a useful 
change of diet. Potato is too starchy for 
general use (peelings should not be fed at all), 
but mashed with middlings and a little milk is 
very valuable for the bigger chickens as they ap- 
proach the, market stage. Milk itself deserves 
special mention, for whenever it can be obtained 
fairly cheap it ought to be used. Meals such as 
those mentioned above may be mixed with it, or 
it can be given to the chickens as a drink once or 
twice daily. Th$ great value of milk for fatten- 
ing purposes has long been recognized in those 
districts of England where that branch of the 
industry is made a speciality. 



90 CHICKENS 

Water for Chickens. A few years a^o there 
was an almost universal outcry among rearers 
against allowing the ohiokens water. It was 
said to foster disease — gapes and diarrhoea in 

partioular -and to be no end of trouble. If 
ohiokens bad never tasted it they wonld never 

want it. There was snllieient water in the soft 
food, and any addition to that was excessive. 
These and other arguments were brought for- 
ward, and ohiokens were, there is no doubt, 
reared very successfully on the " total ab- 
stinence" system. But whether the mortality 
was any less is another question. However, 

that, was before the era, of dry-feeding oame in. 
With this water became a, necessity on account 

of the nature of the food, and today it is, or 
OUght to be, in general use. Even in the days 

before dry feeding was adopted it was not wise 

to try to rear chickens without water, for when 

judiciously used it has always proved a, preserva- 
tive of health rather than the reverse, (iapes, 
diarrhoea, excessive drinking, and other evils 
only occur when the supply is either impure or 
Irregular. A constant allowance of water that 
is pure and kept out of the sun, in vessels thai 
are clean, is an invigorating tonic. It is one of 






AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



»] 



Nature's greatest gifts, and is just as essential t<> 
life as the air we breathe. But, on the other 
band, and Like the air, it most i><; pure, or it im- 




Fitf. 17. Bottle Fountain foe Supplying Watbb 
ros Chicks 

mediately becomes a source of disease. There is 
one other argument in favor of giving water, 

and it is this. It often happens that we havo to 



92 CHICKENS 

give tonics or medicines to chickens, and the 
water is the most convenient medium through 
which to do it. 

Grit for Chickens. — Next to water, grit ranks 
high in importance, especially now that there is 
so much grain used. It is essential to the 
general health of the birds, and a small box of it 
should always be within reach. Just as in the 
case of water, the supply must be good and 
regular or trouble will follow. The best grits to 
use are those sold properly prepared for chickens, 
and they are cheap enough. Sand is of no use 
whatever, but fine gravel from the bed of a 
fresh-water stream will often serve the purpose. 
This latter is particularly good for ducklings. 
Grit should never be mixed with the food in any 
case. 

Number of Meals per Day. — So far no mention 
has been made as to the number of meals which 
chickens should have each day, excepting that at 
the very first every two hours is not too frequent, 
provided a little only is given at a time. After 
that the feeder must rely upon his own judgment 
rather than the clock. He must feed the chick- 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 93 

ens when they are hungry, and give them as 
much as they will clear up, without leaving any 
for the wild birds and vermin. 

Dry-feed, it is true, may often be placed in 
troughs or scattered in litter, but generally 
speaking the youngsters must be so fed that they 
get quite enough at each meal, and are ready 
with a good appetite for that meal when it 
comes. The happy medium between starvation 
or insufficiency on the one side, and excess or 
overindulgence on the other, must be struck be- 
fore one can rear successfully. The chickens' 
appetites, which will vary with the season, the 
daily weather or temperature, the kind of food 
used, the age of the birds themselves, and many 
other things, must be the feeder's guidance. If 
he begins by too much rule-of-thumb, and not 
enough common sense and observation, he will 
never be a success. His must be a mind that is 
plastic, capable of taking in every little thing he 
sees about him, and acting accordingly. 

If he has no reliance in himself, no practical 
experience to back him up ; if he must adjust his 
spectacles, study the table of weights and 
measures, worry his brain unnecessarily about 
"carbo-hydrates" or the exactitudes of "al- 



94 CHICKENS 

buminoid ratios " and " digestion co-efficients " — 
all estimable things in their way — he may as 
well give up chicken rearing and become an 
analytical chemist at once. 

Weaning the Chickens. — At any time between 
the ages of five to ten weeks, according to the 
time of year and other circumstances, the chickens 
may be considered weaned. They will be fairly 
well feathered, and able to keep themselves warm 
enough at night without the hen. Indeed, as a 
general rule, the latter is kept too long with her 
chickens, with the result that they get overheated 
at night, and disease follows. The conditions 
under which the rearing is being done must, of 
course, always be studied. One would not, for 
instance, take the mother away from her brood 
just at the beginning of a sudden spell of cold 
weather. And the rearer would be a duffer in- 
deed Who kept the brood and hen together in a 
stuffy coop in hot summer weather just because 
a book happened to give either eight or ten weeks 
as the proper age for the separation. 

If the coops are large, small broods may be 
amalgamated for a. week or ten days after leav- 
ing the hen. There will then be one of the coops 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 95 

vacant for further use, and the chickens will not 
be so likely to take cold, a large lot naturally 
keeping warmer than a small one. But when 
once they are weaned their occupation of the 
original coops should not cover more than about 
a fortnight, that period being sufficiently long as 
an intermediary break, during which the young- 
sters may gain not only independence but hardi- 
hood. 

After this, larger houses must be employed, 
even those used for adults not being too big, for 
it will be necessary to run the } r oung stock in 
lots of forty or so. The individuals in these 
flocks should be as nearly as possible of the same 
age, and if heavy and light breeds be kept apart 
the latter will do better. The sexes must be sep- 
arated as soon as the cockerels begin to crow — 
or rather before that — the pens occupied by each 
being placed as far apart as possible. 

It is well to bear in mind before going on, that 
to succeed with market stock or adults one must 
have the birds reared well. Everything depends 
on the first ten weeks or so. Weaknesses con- 
tracted then, through disease or indifferent atten- 
tion, will, in nearly every case, follow the bird 
through life. It is the chicken that has healthy, 



96 



CHICKENS 



robust parents; the chicken that is hatched in 
good time, and hatched well ; the chicken that is 
brought up in healthy surroundings, and by prac- 
ticed hands, that pays, and becomes a credit to 
its owner. 



„ :J» 



CHAPTER IX 
ARTIFICIAL REARING 

Although there are many people who, for 
various reasons, still stick to " the old hen," the 
wide and ever-increasing popularity of incubators 
has rendered the production of foster-mothers ab- 
solutely necessary. Some few prefer to hatch 
artificially, transferring the chickens to hens at 
hatching time, but, generally speaking, where 
there is an incubator there must be a foster- 
mother in which to bring up the chickens. 

Foster-Mothers. — The best of these appliances 
are now made in two types, just as the incubators 
are, viz., those heated by a tank of hot water, 
and others by hot air. While passing over the 
earlier patterns of foster-mothers — all of which 
are now practically obsolete — it will be as well 
here to briefly mention the characteristics of 
those Avhich are now in daily use, so that the 
novice may gain some insight into the general 
arrangement of such appliances. At one end 
there is a tank of water, which is heated by a 

97 



98 CHICKENS 

lamp (see illustrations), and this tank warms the 
sleeping compartment, or hottest part of the 
rearer. The heat of the lamp also serves to 
slightly raise the temperature of the larger 
chamber, which may be seen fronted with fine 
wire-netting and sheets of glass which are mov- 




Fig. 18.— The Incubator Foster Mother 

able or adjustable. Machines of this kind are 
absolutely storm-proof, and constructed for out- 
door work. 

In the atmospheric foster-mothers the lamp is 
placed underneath the sleeping place. This heats 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



99 



a galvanized -iron sheeting, which is directly un- 
der the floor of the dormitory. Over this sheet- 
ing a shaft of tin extends from the chickens' 
chamber to the outer air. This gets heated by 
the lamp below, so that a constant flow of fresh, 
warm air is passing into the dormitory and out 
at the ventilating holes above. No lamp fumes 
can possibly enter the brooder in any way. 




Fig. 19.— Atmospheric Foster-Mother 

In the atmospheric foster-mother the plan is 
rather different. The heat of the lamp is con- 
ducted up a metal pipe or chimney into the 
chickens' chamber above, where it enters a large 
round air tank or drum. Here it circulates twice 
over a radiator, and from thence passes out into 
a compartment above, which is in direct comma 
uication with the outer air. The fresh air enters 



100 CHICKENS 

from outside, and, in entering, it is thoroughly 
warmed by coming in contact with the lamp flue. 
The result is a constant flow of fresh, warm air 
into the dormitory, and an even distribution of 
heat from the air tank, which extends above the 
chickens' heads. In the illustration the sliding 
roof is drawn back and lids of inner compart- 
ment thrown open. 

Selecting a Foster- Mother. — There are a num- 
ber of good foster-mothers on the market, and, 
as we have already pointed out, those which are 
here described and illustrated are given for the 
purpose of representation rather than of com- 
parison and criticism. In selecl&ig a foster- 
mother the beginner must (eschewing all those 
savoring of cheapness) look to certain well- 
defined points in construction and plan. To 
begin with (we are speaking now of outdoor 
rearers), it must be well built, storm-proof, and 
substantial. A toy of a thing means disappoint- 
ment, loss, and often serious fires. There must be 
plenty of room in it, and any amount of light. In 
this last respect manufacturers are somewhat shy. 
They scarcely give any window at all to the hot 
chamber, the very place where it is needed, for it 
is when they are in there (whether during the first 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 101 

day or so, or at night throughout the period 
of rearing) that the chickens require closest 
observation. To open the lid every time one 
wants to see how things are going on inside 
means escape of heat, if not a serious chilling of 
the inmates ; it disturbs the chickens, and the 
attendant cannot tell how they are getting on. 
With a window of reasonable dimensions, how- 
ever, one can look in quietly at night without 
even waking the sleepers, or he can observe them 
by day, and note exactly by their actions as to 
whether they are all right or otherwise. 

Three Chambers Essential.— A foster-mother, 
except for use indoors, that only consists of one 
compartment should not be tolerated. Person- 
ally, I think three chambers are preferable, one 
being for, sleeping or warming up during the da}', 
the next a little cooler, and the third rather 
warmer than the outer air. The first and second 
of these should be glazed in front, and the last 
protected by a window of fine wire-netting only. 
A canvas blind or shutter is often useful to pre- 
vent driving rain or snow from entering, and if 
this latter division is open to the ground floor 
also, so much the better. 



102 



CHICKENS 






The Lamp must be given special attention 
when choosing a brooder, and, although there 
are many kinds in use, some are of better 
quality and more reliable than others. The pro- 
tection which is given the lamp is just about as 




Fig. 20. — FOSTER-MOTHERS WITH DETACHABLE RUNS 

important, for a flame that is exposed to draughts 
will never give a steady heat, and it may be the 
means of setting fire to the whole machine. The 
means of the disposal of the lamp fumes must 
be observed, as well as the method of supplying 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 103 

the inner compartments with an ample supply of 
warm air. 

The Ventilation is, of course, a most essential 
point, and, it may be added, very many foster- 
mothers to-day fail in being too stuffy. Then 
again, there is the regulation of the ventilation. 
More fresh air is required for large chickens 
than for small ones, more on hot days than on 
cold. There should be no complicated machinery 
about a foster-mother. The best to-day are the 
simplest. 

Runs. — A small detachable run, as advised for 
use with coops (Fig. 21), should be provided for 
each foster-mother for the same reasons already 
given. Indeed, such a run — which, to a three- 
compartment foster-mother, constitutes a fourth 
division — is far more necessary with artificially- 
hatched chickens than with others. Without the 
hen to call them the youngsters are easily lost 
or chilled, if unable to find their way home, 
when out for the first few daj^s, but after they 
have spent those days within the protection of 
the run they may be given fuller liberty with 
confidence. 



104 CHICKENS 

Temperature. — Most foster-mothers are pro- 
vided with thermometers, placed at about the 
warmest part of the sleeping place, and before the 
chickens are removed from the "drying-box," or 
the incubator " nursery," the thermometer should 
stand at about 90 deg. Rather less will do if the 
season is late and the weather warm. In trans- 
ferring from the one place to the other, the same 
precautions must be taken that have been men- 
tioned before to prevent the chickens taking cold 
— exposure to severe winds being the most dan- 
gerous. 

Feeding the Chicks. — The feeding of artificially- 
hatched chickens may be carried out precisely as 
already recommended so far as the food is con- 
cerned, but the mode of giving it is obviously 
rather different. In the first instance, as soon 
as the chickens are settled in the brooder, a little 
egg food may be sprinkled around the hover, 
and, if the weather is fine and the birds strong, 
some may be put in the second chamber to en- 
courage them to run about. Food should not be 
given in the sleeping place any longer than is 
necessary — not after the second day. Every- 
thing, in fact, should be done to induce the 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 105 

chickens to come out. Weakness soon follows 
continued exposure to a heated atmosphere, and 
chickens thus affected do not easily recover — 
they are the first for disease to claim. Dry food 
is even more useful in the foster-mother than it 
is in the coop. It may be sprinkled in the litter 
(which may be, as before recommended, dry 
earth and chaff for preference) to encourage 
scratching exercise and afford diversion ; or a 
little trough or shallow box of it may be placed 
in the foster-mother, so that the chickens can 
help themselves when so inclined. When rear- 
ing with the natural mother, to put the dry food 
in the litter or within reach would mean that 
she would eat most of it. And if it were placed 
in the open, wild birds and vermin would con- 
sume it. When giving any of the soft foods 
advised in another chapter they must always be 
fed outside on clean turf, or, if the weather be 
very bad, in well-scoured troughs placed in the 
coolest part of the brooder. The water, too, 
must be as far away from the heated chambers 
as circumstances will permit. Green food is 
even more essential to artificially-hatched 
chickens than to others, and the daily supply, 
particularly in the early months of the year, 



106 CHICKENS 

must on no account be omitted. As to the 
number of meals to be given each day, and the 
amount of food to be allowed, the feeder must 
be guided by the chickens' appetites, and other 
circumstances already discussed. 

Temperature and Ventilation. — The regulation 
of the temperature and ventilation — terms which 
are not quite synonymous — is a most important 
matter when rearing artificially. Starting with 
the foster-mother at 90 deg., it may be reduced 
to about 85 deg. by the end of the first week. 
Then a further but gradual reduction may lake 
place until the thermometer in the warmest part 
stands at 70 deg., the chickens being rather more 
than a fortnight old. At that it may remain in 
the early months of the year for some weeks. 
But rather than rely upon the thermometer, the 
rearer will do better to accustom himself to 
judge the temperature by the motions of the 
chickens themselves. Supposing, to begin with, 
that the temperature under the hover is comfort- 
ably hot to the hand, and the brooder is oc- 
cupied by a normal number of chickens, all should 
go well. But the attendant ought not to rest 
content with that. He must take note of what 






AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



107 



the chickens are doing every time he goes round. 
If they are scattered evenly over the floor of the 
sleeping place at night — or under the hover when 
they are quite small — and they are quiet and 
peaceful, all is well. On the other hand, if there 
is a continual movement and crowding toward 




Fig. 21.— Sectional Brooder with Detachable Runs 

the hottest part, more heat is required. When 
the temperature is too high the chickens will be 
sleeping away from the chief source of heat, 
many of them, perhaps, panting and exhausted. 
After the age of three weeks, or rather less, the 
lamp heat may be much reduced, more especially 
at night, when the chickens are all crowded 



108 CHICKENS 

together in the one chamber ; but all along the 
attendant must use his common sense and ob- 
servation, relying upon those two faculties more 
than upon thermometers and written directions. 
It may be mentioned, however, that overheat- 
ing is a far more prevalent mistake than the 
reverse, and that it, combined with overcrowd- 
ing, is responsible for a great part of the 
mortality which takes place every year. If the 
brooder is allowed to attain a "sweating" heat, 
indicated by the litter being damp in the morn- 
ing and the glass streaming with moisture, there 
will soon be trouble (diarrhoea, pneumonia, and 
other ills) unless prompt measures are taken to 
admit more ventilation at night, and to reduce 
the lamp heat also if necessary. 

When to Discontinue Artificial Heat,— The age 
at w T hich lamp heat may be dispensed with de- 
pends upon the time of year. In April and May, 
or later, chickens will often do quite well with- 
out any artificial heating when four to five weeks 
old, whereas it may be necessary to maintain it 
for two months in earlier days. Here, again, 
one must use his own judgment, and do accord- 
ingly as weather and other conditions permit. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 109 

But in any case the heat must be withdrawn 
gradually, and the chickens hardened-off by de- 
grees. During this process it will often be found 
necessary — in cold, wet days particularly — to 
have the lamp going with a small flame by day, 
putting it out after the chickens have settled for 
the night. The reason for this must be obvious. 
In the daytime the chickens will be continually 
backward and forward, only some half-dozen 
or so, perhaps, being in for a warm-up at a time, 
which is not enough to keep each other com- 
fortable. At night, however, all are near to- 
gether, and the brooder, too, is shut up more 
closely than b}' day, so that less artificial heat is 
required. 

Cold Brooder. — After the chickens have been 
accustomed to be without lamp heat entirely for 
a few days they must be transferred to what is 
called a " cold brooder " (Fig. 24). This is merely 
a brooder of much larger size, and having more 
ventilation, or it is a coop or small house of any 
kind. Its main features must be spaciousness 
(without being too big for the number of 
chickens), airiness, and durability. It must be 
placed away from where the younger lots of 



110 



CHICKENS 



chickens are being reared, for reasons already 
given, and on fresh ground if possible. From 
this stage onward the chickens may be treated 
just in the same way as those reared with the 
natural mother. 

Management of Brooders. — In concluding this 




Fig. 22.— A Sectional Movable Brooder 



chapter I would emphasize the great importance 
of keeping brooders well aired and cleaned. They 
should stand in sunny places, and have their lids 
open to expose the interiors to sun and air when- 
ever possible. Not less important is the atten- 
tion that must be given daily to the lamp. It 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 



111 



must be kept properly trimmed and clean, or 
disasters may occur. To put in print the hun- 
dred and one things which a chicken rearer 
will find to do, even if he goes in for the business 
in quite a small way, would be impossible. All 
of us are situated differently, or have our own 




Fig. 23.— An Out-Door Brooder in Use 

circumstances to contend with. But, as we have 
said before, the work is not a difficult one if we 
go about it in a methodical, open-minded way. 
Instead of being bound down with stock phrases, 
and our common sense swamped by a super- 
abundance of science or " rule of thumb," if we 
took things as we found them, and applied our- 



112 



CHICKENS 



selves to work with unlimbered faculties, how 
much better off we should be ! We do not ven- 
ture to hint that science is out of place in the 
chicken nursery, nor that books and periodicals 




Fig. 24.— A Cold Brooder. 

should not be consulted and studied well, but we 
do say — and say it with emphasis — that most 
chicken rearers are blind. Their intelligence 
and faculty of observation have been sacrificed 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 113 

for some " system," some " authority," some new- 
fangled theory that has been expounded not al- 
ways with unselfish motives. We know of no 
class whose hands are so tied, whose faculties are 
so stunted as those of poultry-keepers. In in- 
cubation and rearing the power of the "hen- 
wife" compared with that of reason is as a 
mountain to a mole-hill. The belief in the 
peppercorn and the pip is more revered than the 
latest achievement of a competition layer by 
those people whom we want to encourage more 
than any others. The ideas about the moon 
affecting the hatching of eggs, the prejudice 
against incubators, and the silly notions regard- 
ing them ; the interest still taken in any old 
fraud who says he or she can foretell sex in eggs 
— these and many others are still unshaken in 
country districts. And they are these things, 
together with the poultry-keepers who will not 
use their observation and general intelligence 
which Nature has given them, which are the 
greatest opposing forces to the progress of 
poultry culture. 



CHAPTER X 

REARING IN WINTER 

Poultry farmers who make a speciality of 
supplying table poultry often have to do much 
of their rearing in winter, when shelter of some 
kind beyond that provided by the coop or 
brooder must be afforded. This shelter may be 
anything from a few thatched hurdles placed in 
an orchard or stack-yard, wherein the farmer 
may rear a brood or so, to an elaborate range of 
sheds or brooder-house capable of accommodat- 
ing thousands of chickens at once. That some 
shelter is essential in the depth of winter is ad- 
mitted by all who have ever tried to bring up 
chickens in what may be called such an un- 
natural time of year, and each one who wishes 
to undertake the work must lay out his plans ac- 
cording to his requirements or expectations. 
The specialist who is working a large plant will 
need no advice from us. He must be an expert 
himself at the work or he will soon come to 

114 






AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 115 

grief. The suggestions offered are rather for the 
guidance of the farmer, the cottager, or the 
small holder. 

Incubator Houses.— Whenever there is a good 
market for early chickens, and a desire on the 
part of some one engaged in other agricultural 
pursuits to supply that market, it will pay to 
erect a range of lean-to sheds for the protection 
of the chickens. The work need not be elabo- 
rately done, for all that is needed is a good roof 
and a good floor — the former to throw off rain 
and the latter to keep the litter perfectly dry, 
and prevent vermin, such as rats, from entering. 
Rather than make a winter rearing-shed against 
a wall, as is often done, with its roof sloping to- 
ward the sun, it should be constructed — even if 
at a little greater expense — the other way about, 
viz., with its highest part at the front, and the 
roof sloping to the back. The reason for this is 
obvious. If the front is higher than the back, 
and the erection is facing toward the south, all 
the winter sun will enter. But if it is made the 
opposite way most of the sun's rays will fall 
upon the roof. The diagram will explain my 
meaning more clearly. The glass awning is not 



116 



CHICKENS 



essential, but it is a great advantage. But if the 
glass is not used, some canvas or waterproof 
sacking blinds must be fixed so that they may be 
drawn down across the netting at night, or to 
screen the interior from driving rain or snow by 
day. 




o 

2d 

.2 * 




\ 

5 










.* 


i 




_- 




\ Sliding 






000*. 

rem 



Fig. 25, — Diagram of Shed for Winter Rearing 



Foster-Mothers or Coops may be placed in 
such a shed, and the former may, if desired, be 
of a. type especially constructed for indoor work. 
The whole of the shed floor must be well littered 
with some short material, and it should be 
divided into sections with wire netting so that 
the various batches of chickens may be kept 
separate. Outside the shed there ought to be a 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 117 

good grass run to each inner division, a small slid- 
ing door being used to allow the chickens to pass 
in and out. The advantages of an outside run in 
winter are very great, and it will be found that 
there are many days quite mild enough to be en- 
joyed by the chickens even in December and 
January. Cold winds, rain, and snow are the 
elements to be guarded against. A dry cold, 
such as frost, is not nearty so harmful. 

Food for the Chicks. — Of course chickens that 
are confined to sheds require even more atten- 
tion than do those outside. They must be sup- 
plied with ample fresh green stuff daily, and they 
must be kept employed by scratching for dry feed 
buried in the litter. Overcrowding must be 
carefully avoided, as always. The same foods as 
before recommended may be given the indoor 
chickens, but too much of a starchy nature is 
liable to bring on disease, and care must be 
taken not to allow foods of highly stimulating 
properties, except in small quantities. 

It is the custom with some rearers to feed the 
winter chickens by candle-light about nine or 
ten o'clock each night, so as to break the long 
fast, believing that they come on better with 



118 CHICKENS 

such attention. But although the chickens learn 
wonderfully quick to come to the light and en- 
joy their supper, the others which are quietly 
sleeping grow just as well. It is a good plan to 
put a little dry feed in a trough overnight, so 
that the chickens can get it at the first streak of 
dawn when rearing under any circumstances. 

Vermin. — Finally, the indoor rearer must be- 
ware of rats and other vermin. These pests 
are more pressed by hunger in the winter-time, 
and get uncommonly bold in hard weather. 
The interiors of coops and brooders must be fre- 
quently turned to the light so as to see whether 
red mites are putting in an appearance, and the 
broody hens should be afforded every facility for 
dusting. 

Chicken Rearing in Buildings.— Farmers and 
cottagers not willing or able to go in for 
specially-made sheds may rear a few broods 
quite well in vacant buildings, such as barns, so 
long as they are rat-proof, light, dry, and airy. 
In many parts of the country, especially in the 
West, broods of chickens may often be seen in 
the depth of winter with no other shelter than 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 119 

that provided by the hen and the hedgerow, or, 
perhaps, the rick-yard. A large proportion of 
these fall a pray to vermin, but comparatively 
few to exposure or disease. Hence it would 
seem that with a little additional care, particu- 
larly as to shutting up at night, the system 
might be extended successfully with some 
people. 



CHAPTEE XI 
POULTRY AILMENTS 

Diseases 

The poultry keeper has no greater enemy to 
resist, to fight against, than disease. It is his 
bete noir, ever at his elbow waiting an oppor- 
tunity to seize upon and destroy his flock. The 
negligent breeder who feeds and houses his stock 
badly is usually the first victim, for he has 
avoided taking those necessary precautions 
which would have prevented disease from estab- 
lishing itself. On the other hand, no matter 
how careful we may be in matters of hygiene, 
ailments often occur which must be promptly 
treated if we would prevent an epidemic. To 
be prepared to meet disease when it comes is to 
be more than half-way on the way to stamping 
it out. 

Generally speaking, when a bird is found 
suffering from an infectious disease, it is wisest 
to kill it at once, burying it in quicklime. If an 

120 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 121 

attempt at curing is decided upon then the ut- 
most precautions must be taken to isolate the 
sick bird. A warm, dry shed should be fitted 
up as a hospital. Provide it with several cages 
in which to put single birds or more, see that it 
is well ventilated, free from draughts, and that 
a "medicine chest" is within reach. The latter 
need not be an expensive article. 

Although poultry are subject to an almost 
interminable list of ailments, with a few common 
drugs the attendant will be able to combat most 
of the every-day diseases. I would suggest that 
he fit up his " chest " with the following : Some 
Epsom salts, a small bottle each of spirits of 
camphor, tincture of aconite, tincture of iodine, 
chlorodyne, terebene, and carbolic acid. An 
ounce or two of permanganate of potash and 
sulphate of iron, a chemist's mixture of iron and 
phosphate of lime, salad oil, turpentine, and an 
ointment, such as cosmoline or vaseline ; a few 
half-grain and grain opium pills. 

Before going on to describe, as far as space 
will allow, the causes, symptoms, and treatment 
of the better known diseases, let me impress 
upon the poultry keeper, more particularly the 
beginner, the importance not only of the iin- 



122 CHICKENS 

mediate isolation of sick fowls, but the equal 
necessity of at once finding out the cause of the 
complaint. Until the origin of the disease is 
discovered and rooted out it is hopeless to at- 
tempt curative measures. For convenience, the 
following ailments are taken in alphabetical 
order. 

Anaemia. — Poverty of the blood. Causes. — 
Insufficient green stuff ; overcrowding in dark, 
damp, ill-ventilated houses ; lack of sunshine 
and fresh air. Symptoms. — General depression, 
paleness of face and comb ; extremities cold ; 
emaciation ; ruffled, lustreless plumage ; pale, 
flabby flesh. 

Treatment.— Eemove the causes that have 
given rise to the ailment. Give nourishing food, 
fresh air, green vegetable and an iron tonic. 

Bronchitis. — Inflammation of the bronchiae, 
viz., the air passages leading to the lungs. 
Causes. — Draughts ; sudden changes of the tem- 
perature. Symptoms. — A "rattle" in the 
throat; heavy breathing; sometimes cough and 
running at the nostrils ; expectoration. 

Treatment. — Keep the bird warm. Ad- 






AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 123 

minister two or three drops of spirits of camphor 
in a teaspoonful of glycerine twice daily. In- 
halations of steam from hot water containing a 
lew drops of terebene are useful. Feed on soft, 
warm food, such as oatmeal porridge or rice 
pudding slightly seasoned with ginger or cay- 
enne. 

Bumble-foot. — A hard, corn-like growth upon 
the ball of the foot. Causes. — Confinement on 
hard ground. In heavy breeds, the flying down 
from perches that are too high. Predisposition. 
Symptoms. — Lameness ; swelling of the foot. 

Treatment. — If the corn is hard, pare it with 
a sharp knife and apply a little acetic acid to the 
centre daily. Bed the bird on soft, clean hay. 
If an abscess forms, the place should be lanced, 
the matter squeezed out, and the wound washed 
with warm water. After drying apply carbolic 
oil and bandage. 

Cholera.— An epidemic diarrhoea. Highly con- 
tagious and apparently allied to the cholera mor- 
bus of human beings. Causes. — Defective hy- 
giene, dampness, impure water or an intermittent 
water supply ; decomposing matter, animal and 



124 CHICKENS 

vegetable, about the runs ; contagion — the bacilli 
being conveyed into healthy birds by the latter 
picking up food or grass contaminated by the 
droppings of affected birds. Symptoms. — Loose 
evacuations of a white or green color ; the bird 
is sleepy and depressed ; plumage ruffled ; the 
fluff about the tail wet and matted together ; 
comb dark; there is great thirst throughout; 
the disease runs its course rapidly, death taking 
place (usually in stupor) in a few hours. A post- 
mortem examination discloses a highly inflamed 
condition of the intestines, mouth contains a 
sticky substance, throat is purple. Skin under 
the plumage very dark, and that upon the abdo- 
men green. 

Treatment. — None recommended. In the 
event of the disease being very prevalent, 
Pasteur's vaccine may be used. It is the only 
treatment that is of any practical use. The 
disease is so terribly rapid in its progress that 
the victims are usually too weak for any treat- 
ment by the time restoratives are applied. 
Further, it is so deadly and contagious that every 
affected bird, while it lives, is a refuge for untold 
numbers of bacilli which are liable to be trans- 
mitted to healthy stock, no matter how much 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 125 

care is exercised. Kill and burn every bird as 
soon as it shows the first symptom. Remove 
the non-affected ones to fresh and dry runs, 
thoroughly disinfecting the old ones. The drop- 
pings of diseased birds should be treated with a 
strong carbolic acid disinfectant. There is no 
more difficult disease to stamp out than this one, 
and unless the most exacting means and per- 
sistent effort are employed, it will keep on re- 
appearing, perhaps for years afterward. 

Catarrh. — The common " cold in the head " to 
which we ourselves are subject. Causes. — Ex- 
posure, draughts, damp, sudden changes of tem- 
perature, contagion. Symptoms. — Watery dis- 
charge from eyes and nostrils ; swollen face ; ruf- 
fled, lustreless plumage ; sneezing. 

Treatment. — Administer one-third of a tea- 
spoonful of Epsom salts in warm water, and three 
hours afterward give two or three drops of 
spirits of camphor on a meal pill. Continue to 
give the latter twice daily. Keep the eyes, nos- 
trils, and mouth well sponged with a warm, weak 
solution of permanganate of potash and water, 
drying thoroughly after each operation. Keep 
the bird warm, and feed on soft, nourishing foods 
seasoned with cayenne. Although this disease is 



126 CHICKENS 

not a serious one it is, without doubt, contagious, 
and, if neglected, may lead to roup. 

Crop-bound. — An abnormal accumulation of 
food of a fibrous, husky, or hard nature in the crop. 
Causes. — Careless, irregular feeding, the pres- 
ence of long, wiry grass or hairs that bind the 
contents of the crop into a hard lump ; irregular 
water supply. Symptoms. — The bird is listless, 
and wanders about by itself. Crop very much 
distended and hard ; the breath foul. 

Treatment. — Dissolve half an ounce of Epsom 
salts in a pintof warm water, and give the bird one 
or two teaspoonfuls. Gently knead the crop so as 
to soften and loosen the contents. The process is 
a long and tedious one, but with patience the part 
will become soft. Then administer a little more 
of the salts (diluted with warm water), and place 
the bird in a pen. If after two hours the crop is 
still its original size, and, if anything, harder 
than it was, it is best to kill the bird. Supposing, 
however, that it is a valuable specimen, or one 
that it is particularly desired to save, an operation 
must be performed. An incision about one inch 
long is made at the upper part of the crop, and 
the contents removed with a small silver or bone 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 127 

spoon. When all is clear, wash the interior of 
the crop with warm water, containing a little per- 
manganate of potash, and stitch together the 
aperture. Use a fine needle and silken thread. 
First get the inner skin secured with not less than 
three stitches, and then do the same with the 
outer one. Apply a little carbolic oil to the part, 
and the bird will soon be all right. For a few days 
feed on bread and milk (not too moist), and do 
not give any water for forty-eight hours. 

Diarrhoea. — Causes. — Sudden changes in the 
temperature ; injudicious feeding, dampness, sour 
food. Symptoms. — Watery evacuations. Gen- 
eral depression. 

Treatment. — In mild cases put a little Epsom 
salts in the drinking water, and then feed on soft 
food, mixed crumbly with milk, and containing 
some boiled rice. If the ailment does not disap- 
pear with that, give a meal pill containing three 
drops of spirits of camphor every three hours, 
and a 1 grain opium pill every night. In the 
case of diarrhoea with young chickens, individual 
treatment is scarcely practicable. Put a lump of 
camphor in their drinking water, keep them scru- 
pulously clean, feed largely on boiled rice (mixed 



128 CHICKENS 

dry with fine oatmeal), and remove the cause of 
the ailment, which may usually be found in over- 
heating or injudicious feeding. 

Diphtheria. — Often called " roup," " canker," or 
" ulceration." A highly contagious, dangerous 
disease. Causes. — A bacillus. Birds usually 
attacked are those that are or have been suffering 
from roup. Damp, insanitary houses and runs. 
Uncleanliness and lack of fresh air and sunshine. 
It spreads rapidly by contagion. Symptoms. — 
Catarrhal discharge, depression, specks of white, 
or large yellowish growths in the throat and 
mouth, or about the eyes. Offensive breath ; the 
throat a bluish purple color, emaciation ; finally, 
the diphtheritic membrane forms across the throat 
suffocating the bird. 

Treatment. — In the case of ordinary stock it 
is wisest to kill off every diseased bird, burning 
the bodies. The malady, however, is amenable 
to treatment if taken in time, but the greatest 
care must be exercised in isolating the sick birds, 
and all utensils, etc., used by them. Further, it 
is as well to remember that it is by no means un- 
likely that this terrible disease can be trans- 
mitted from animals to man. To cure diseased 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 129 

birds put them in a warm room — one with a moist 
atmosphere preferably. Remove all growths that 
come away easily, burning them, and the remain- 
ing ones paint with the following lotion, viz., car- 
bolic acid, 1 dr. ; sulphurous acid solution, 3 drs. ; 
tincture perchloride of iron, 4 drs. ; glycerine, 4 
drs. Use a small paint brush, and apply a little 
to the specks twice or thrice daily. Wash the 
eyes and nostrils frequently with the solution of 
permanganate of potash, as advised in the case of 
" catarrh." Administer a chemist's " sore throat 
mixture" two or three times a day, allowing a 
medium-sized bird about one-third human adult 
dose. Feed on soft, nourishing foods, such as 
bread and milk, custards, or porridge, for the 
strength of the patient must be kept up at any 
cost. When the growths disappear, and the bird 
begins to look brighter, give an iron tonic and a 
little raw lean meat daily. 

Dropsy.— Sometimes occurs both of the crop 
and the abdomen, but birds so affected are 
seldom worth curing. Symptoms. — Accumula- 
tions of watery matter in the parts mentioned, 
causing them to " bag " or become pendulous. 

Treatment. — Get a veterinary surgeon to 



130 CHICKENS 

tap the bird. Administer 4 grains of iodide of 
potassium daily. The crop may be emptied by 
holding the bird by the legs and causing the 
liquid to be vomited, by a gentle downward 
pressure. 

Egg-bound. — Inability to eject an egg, usually 
through the latter being unusually large. Hens 
that are too fat are frequently egg-bound. 
Symptoms. — The bird visits the nest frequently, 
but without laying. The tail is carried low, 
sometimes touching the ground. The wings 
droop, and there is evident pain and distress. 

Treatment. — Foment the vent by holding it 
over the steam arising from a jug of boiling 
water for about ten minutes. Lubricate the 
part with the finger, or a feather dipped in salad 
oil. Then place the hen in a basket lined with 
hay, and she will probably pass the egg in a 
short time. If not, the egg may be assisted 
toward the aperture by a gentle pressure from 
the outside, but the greatest care must be ex- 
ercised to avoid a breakage. Give nearly half a 
teaspoonf ul of Epsom salts in a little warm water 
before commencing operations and again twelve 
hours afterward. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 131 

Egg-eating. — Although scarcely a disease, this 
bad habit may be treated as one, for when an 
individual commences egg-eating the vice quickly 
spreads through the flock like a plague. Causes. 
— Lack of employment, want of shell-making 
material; empty drinking vessels, broken eggs; 
too close confinement. 

Treatment. — Remove the causes and isolate 
the offenders, giving them a surfeit of egg-shells, 
bad eggs, or stale ones, morning, noon, and night 
until the appetite is sickened. If the vice is 
general, the whole flock may be so treated, using 
the while patent nests to ensure the safety of the 
eggs laid. When the vice is cured, give a little 
sulphur in the soft food every other day for a 
week. 

Eggs, Blood Spots in. — Brought about by slight 
haemorrhage in the ovary or oviduct. Causes. 
— Too much stimulating food, such as spices and 
meat. 

Treatment. — Give occasional small doses of 
Epsom salts, and reduce the diet. 

Enteritis. — Inflammation of the smaller intes- 
tines. An epidemic disease that probably causes 



132 CHICKENS 

the deaths of as many fowls and pheasants every 
year as do all the other diseases put together. 
Causes. — Ordinary cases of enteritis sometimes 
occur from fowls eating unslaked lime, poison, or 
some other irritant, bat these are isolated in- 
stances compared to an outbreak of contagious 
enteritis, which is caused by a bacillus that exists 
in the blood and tissues of diseased fowls and in 
their evacuations. As in the case of cholera — to 
which this disease has some resemblance — healthy 
birds picking up food or grass fouled by the 
excrement of affected birds contract the disease. 
Symptoms. — Rapid prostration; heavy breath- 
ing; ruffled plumage, diarrhoea, the excrement 
being yellow or mustard color instead of green 
as in cholera. The droppings in extreme cases 
are tinged with blood. There is intense thirst ; 
weakness of the legs and spasmodic shivering. 

Treatment. — None recommended, but where 
great issues are at stake, Dr. Klein's vaccine may 
be resorted to, with the object of checking the 
progress of the disease. All birds, on showing 
the first symptoms, should be killed and burned. 
Remove the non-affected ones to fresh ground, 
provide ample, dry shelter, and see that the 
water supply is good and sufficient. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 133 

Favus. — A disease caused by a microscopic 
fungus of a vegetable nature. It first appears as 
white scabs on the comb or face, which multiply, 
grow together, and become yellower and thicker 
if not attended to. The skin of the neck and 
rump is sometimes invaded, the feathers falling 
off. 

Treatment. — Wash the parts with vinegar or 
warm water and soft soap, then rub in an oint- 
ment made of red oxide of mercury one part, 
and lard six parts. Nitrate of silver may also 
be applied effectually. Give the bird nourishing 
food, plenty of green stuff, fresh air, and an iron 
tonic. In treating the patient it is as well to 
bear in mind that the spores of the fungus float 
away in the air like dust, and, settling upon any 
scratched or abraded skin, take root. Most 
domestic animals may become affected by the 
disease in that way, and even man himself is not 
immune. Many people, therefore, would prefer 
to kill a diseased bird outright, rather than run 
the risks that accompany any treatment of this 
loathsome disease. 

Feather-eating.— A vice common to fowls kept 
in close confinement. It is the result of bad 



134: CHICKENS 

management ; overstimulation ; lack of exercise 
and diversion ; want of green food ; insect pests. 
Treatment. — Remove the causes which 
brought it about. Isolate the offenders, and 
give flowers of sulphur in the soft food (a tea- 
spoonful to ever}' six hens) every other day for a 
week or more. It is not the slightest use apply- 
ing any nauseous dressing to the plumage until 
the cause which developed the vice has been re- 
moved. 

Gapes. — A disease mainly confined to young 
chickens, young pheasants, and various species 
of wild birds. It is caused by the presence of 
small blood-red worms in the windpipe, which 
set up irritation, or multiply to such an extent 
that the bird is suffocated. Symptoms. — Gap- 
ing, sneezing, or coughing. Rapid emaciation. 
The wings droop, and the sufferer often falls 
backward in its attempts to breathe. 

Treatment. — The disease is a difficult one to 
cure on account of the fact that it attacks such 
young birds, and, usually, so many of them, for 
when it does break out, it is in the nature of an 
epidemic. Individuals may be treated in one of 
the following ways : (a) Strip a feather of its 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 135 

web excepting the tip. Dip it in eucalyptus oil, 
and pass it down the chicken's windpipe (the en- 
trance to which will be seen at the top of the 
throat just behind the tongue). Twist it round 
and withdraw it, and some of the crimson 
worms, or particles of them, will be seen adher- 
ing. To extract all the parasites, the operation 
will have to be performed several times, exercis- 
ing great care not to lacerate the windpipe. 

(b) Take a hot cinder from the fire and pour upon 
it some carbolic acid. Hold the chicken's head in 
the fumes that rise up until the bird shows signs 
of fainting, then immediately place it in the open 
air to recover. Care must be taken not to 
overdo the operation by poisoning the patient. 

(c) When a large number of chickens are at- 
tacked they may be put in a fumigating box, 
and treated with the fumes of carbolic acid en 
masse. The box must have a perforated false 
bottom on which the birds must be placed. The 
carbolic acid must be burned underneath and the 
box made air-tight at the top. A large pane of 
glass should be fixed into the lid, so that the 
operator can observe the chickens within, and 
immediately expose them to fresh air when they 
show signs of drooping. The operation will, per- 



136 CHICKENS 

haps, have to be gone through every day for 
several days before all the birds are cured. 

PREVENTION. — All diseases ought, of course, 
to be prevented as far as possible, but gapes par- 
ticularly calls for attention in this respect. Al- 
ways rear chickens on fresh ground if possible. 
Dampness and humidity are favorable to the ova 
of the gape worm, which exist in water and in 
moist earth, so that dry places should be chosen 
for the chickens. Clean drinking water is 
essential, and, if gapes is suspected, keep a lump 
of camphor in each drinking vessel. Give 
chopped onion or garlic with at least two of the 
feeds each day. Always burn birds that die of 
gapes. Keep the chickens robust and free of in- 
sect pests ; particularly ticks. 

Gout.— A swollen, heated condition of the feet 
and joints, usually attacking birds that are 
brought up in close confinement, and which are 
unsuitably fed. 

Treatment. — Dissolve Epsom salts in the 
drinking water, give a plain diet, and plenty of 
green stuff. To relieve the affected parts im- 
merse them in warm water, afterward applying 
a liniment. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 137 

Leg-weakness. — Young, growing cockerels of 
the heavy breeds often lose the use of their legs 
at the age of five or six months, especially if 
they have been forced. It is best to kill such 
birds, as they will be of no use for breeding, un- 
less required for show purposes. 

Treatment. — Nutritious but non-fattening 
food. Administer one-third adult human being 
doses of a salts of iron and phosphate of lime 
mixture. Kub the legs with an embrocation if 
cramp sets in. The use of dry bone meal from 
an early age will go far to prevent leg-weakness. 

Liver Disease (Tuberculosis). — One of the 
commonest and most dreaded of all poultry 
diseases. Causes. — A tuberculous bacillus, con- 
sidered by man} 7 to be analogous to that 
which attacks mammalian animals. When the 
bacilli are found in the lungs the disease is 
known as " consumption." Highly contagious, 
and if the disease itself is not actually inherited, 
the tendency to it undoubtedly is. Poultry suf- 
fering from liver disease should not be bred 
from, they are unfit for food, and it would be 
very unwise to eat eggs laid by them. Birds 
that are overfed and kept in ill-ventilated 



138 CHICKENS 

houses and dirty runs are most liable to attack. 
Symptoms. — Emaciation ("going light"), par- 
ticularly of the breast flesh, lameness, appetite 
variable, but often quite good ; comb and wattles 
pale; a yellowish tint about the face; sunken, 
dull eyes. A post-mortem examination discloses 
cheesy growths upon the liver and often extend- 
ing to the other organs. 

Treatment. — None recommended. Kill and 
burn all diseased birds, and remove the others 
from the infected area ; thoroughly cleansing 
and disinfecting the latter, and leaving it vacant 
for at least twelve months. Pay special atten- 
tion to ventilation (oxygen being known to be 
the greatest enemy of the tuberculous bacillus), 
and to cleanliness ; feed on a non-stimulating 
diet, giving plenty of fresh green stuff daily as 
well as grit and pure water. 

Pneumonia. — Inflammation of the lungs. 
Causes. — Sudden changes of temperature, ex- 
posure, and, in young chickens (especially those 
reared in foster-mothers), overcrowding, and 
consequent overheating, at night. Hereditary 
predisposition. Symptoms. — Cough, gasping for 
breath ; expectoration ; ruffled plumage ; a crack- 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 139 

ling sound can be heard if the ear is placed 
against the bird's back between the shoulders. 

Treatment. In the ease of adults paint the 
skin on the back between the wings with iodine 
once daily. Give three drops of chlorodj T ne in a 
teaspoonful of linseed tea every four hours until 
improvement sets in, when it may be given less 
frequently. Keep the bird warm and feed on a 
soft, nutritious diet. Little can be done to 
relieve young chickens. Give more room and 
fresh air at night, and mix a few drops of 
chlorodyne and a teaspoonful of glycerine iu 
each half-pint of drinking water. 

Rheumatism. — Distinguished from gout by the 
absence of swelling and heat. Causes. — Damp- 
ness, cold ; many birds are hereditarily predis- 
posed to rheumatism. 

Treatment. — Hub the parts with any good 
liniment — one of chloroform and belladonna be- 
ing exceptionally serviceable. Keep the bird 
warm, and give a mild aperient, such as a small 
dose of Epsom salts once daily. Feed on an 
unstimulating diet, in which has been mixed a 
pinch each of bicarbonate of soda and chlorate 
of potash. 



140 CHICKENS 

Roup. — A highly contagious form of catarrh, 
sometimes becoming malignant or diphtheritic (see 
Diphtheria). Causes. — Insanitation, draughts, 
overcrowding, dampness, cold, contagion. Symp- 
toms. — The disease usually commencing as a com- 
mon cold (see "Catarrh") it must be treated as 
such, but when there is a thickening of the dis- 
charge from nostrils and eyes, and the breath be- 
comes very foul, other measures should be re- 
sorted to. A bird affected by roup is feverish 
and depressed. The face swells so that the eyes 
are often entirely hidden and sealed up; breath- 
ing is labored, emaciation rapid. 

Treatment. — Sponge the parts continually, 
as advised under "Catarrh." Give eight drops 
of sal volatile in a teaspoonful of warm water 
twice daily, and paint the swollen parts with 
iodine, taking care that the tincture does not get 
into the bird's eyes. As soon as improvement 
sets in give a mineral tonic in one-third human 
adult doses. Keep the bird warm, and feed on 
a nourishing diet, such as bread and milk, or 
porridge, seasoned with a little cayenne or ginger. 
Thoroughly clean and disinfect the runs and 
houses that contained the diseased birds ; find 
out the cause of the outbreak and remove it. 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 141 
Scaly Leg. — See page 145. 
Tuberculosis. — See " Liver Disease." 

White Comb. — Birds that are kept in dark, 
damp, ill-ventilated runs, deprived of green food 
and sunlight, contract a mild disease of the comb, 
upon which appears a white scurf or powdering, 
which sometimes extends to the feathers of the 
neck and body. 

Treatment. — Remove the causes of the 
disease, and mix a little sulphur in the soft food 
every alternate day for a week. Supply a 
plentiful allowance of green stuff, nourishing, 
non-heating food, and give (after discontinuing 
the sulphur) a mineral tonic. Carbolic oil may 
be applied to the affected parts. 

Worms.— Birds suffering from parasitical 
worms in the intestines are listless, weak, and 
thin, although they may eat well — sometimes 
ravenously. These symptoms being, however, 
common to other diseases, the droppings under- 
neath the perches should be examined for traces 
of worms. If the latter are the cause of the ail- 
ment, they will be discovered whole, or in pieces, 
in the evacuations. 



142 CHICKENS 

Treatment. — Administer one grain of san- 
tonin and five grains of powdered areca nut in a 
tablespoonful of warm milk and water to each 
affected bird. Give the dose when the bird is 
fasting, and feed on warm, soft food for a day or 
two. Fowls that are kept in dirty runs and fed 
on impure food and unsound grain are most sub- 
ject to worms. 

Vermin 

Lice. — If provided with a good dust bath, 
healthy fowls will usually rid themselves of 
these pests, but when only a few are kept it 
is desirable to dust them individually with 
pyrethrum powder. Old stock cocks and broody 
hens particularly require individual attention. 
To dust a fowl properly she should be held by 
the legs by an attendant and laid on a news- 
paper. The operator can then raise the feathers 
with one hand while he uses the dredger with 
the other. The powder must be got well under 
the feathers, and that which falls off, and which 
would otherwise be lost, may be gathered up off 
the paper. An oil made up of linseed oil eight 
parts, and paraffin two parts, may be used by 
applying it in small quantities on different parts 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 143 

of the body, more particularly at the root of the 
tail and under the wings. Where a number of 
fowls are kept, I am in favor of submitting them 
to an annual dip, to take place in July or August. 
The dip may be prepared as follows : — Dissolve, 
by boiling, one pound of any well-known dis- 
infectant soap, and one pound of yellow soap in 
three quarts of water. When boiling add a pint 
of paraffin (precaution being taken against fire), 
and a tablespoonful of carbolic acid ; mix this 
thoroughly and dilute with sixteen quarts of 
water. Choose a warm day for the operation, 
and dip each fowl for about two minutes, work- 
ing the water well into the feathers. Kinse in a 
tub of plain water and, after squeezing as much 
water as possible out of the feathers, the fowl 
may be held by the legs to flap her wings and 
then replaced in the run. The dip is used cold 
and no injurious effects follow. 

Fleas are often troublesome during the sum- 
mer months, and infest the houses and nests more 
than they do the hens themselves. If not checked 
they increase with amazing rapidity, and I have 
seen them so numerous that the poultryman re- 
fused to enter the houses to collect the eggs! 



144 CHICKENS 

Frequent lime-washing is an effectual preventive 
of all insect pests, but when once the vermin have 
taken possession of a house, more stringent meas- 
ures will have to be employed. Pyrethrum may 
be used in the nests, but spraying with a very fine 
spray-pump, using the above dip diluted with only 
two quarts of water, is far more deadly. This 
must be done at intervals during the summer, 
or whenever the insects show signs of their 
presence. 

The Red Mite is a very minute creature, mak- 
ing its home in the cracks and crevices of perches 
and walls, and coming out at night to suck the 
fowls' blood. The ravages of these pests have of- 
ten been the main cause of failures in poultry keep- 
ing; they increase rapidly, and literally swarm 
in thousands if not instantly prevented, and hens 
that are not only tormented but weakened by loss 
of blood can scarcely be expected to lay. The 
mites may be killed by the application of paraffin, 
or by spraying, as recommended above. What- 
ever method be employed, the perches particu- 
larly must be dressed with the liquid as well as 
the slots in which they rest. Attending to the 
perches in this way will also prevent the spread 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 145 

of the species of itch-mite which is the cause of 
the loathsome disease known as 

Scaly Leg. — Those breeds of fowls that have 
feathered shanks are more liable to attack from 
this parasite. The legs and feet become scurfy, 
and a dirty white color. An encrustation forms, 
the scales of the leg become detached and fall 
off, and the bird frequently loses the entire use of 
its limbs. Diseased fowls should have their legs 
and feet scrubbed with a nail-brush, and an emul- 
sion of soft soap and warm water, afterward be- 
ing dressed with a solution of paraffin and lard, 
in equal parts, and thoroughly mixed when warm. 
The operation may have to be repeated several 
times, but the great thing is to check the disease 
before it has made much progress. 



CHAPTER XII 
PRESERVING EGGS 

I am not an advocate for preserving eggs for 
marketing purposes unless there are uncommon 
circumstances to j ustify one's doing it. Preserved 
eggs, however, come in very useful for the house- 
hold during the winter months, and either one or 
other of the following methods of preserving 
may be employed. It is of the greatest impor- 
tance that all eggs intended to be kept for any 
length of time be quite fresh when placed in the 
preservative. 

Water-Glass. — To one pound of water-glass, 
which almost any druggist will supply, add six 
quarts of hot water. Stir briskly and leave to 
cool, then pour the liquid into the vessel, which 
may be of almost any material, and place the lat- 
ter in a cool place. The eggs may then be put in 
daily, as they are laid, until the vessel is nearly 
full, but at least an inch of liquid should remain 
above the eggs. 

Lime. — Pour 1 gallon of water on to 1 lb. of 
146 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 147 

quicklime. The following day stir tbe mixture 
and add 6 ozs. of salt and 1 oz. of cream of tartar, 
mixing the whole well together. When all the 
sediment has settled, place the eggs in an earthen- 



■mxu ifTTTTTlTT ' ~^^» 

illliliJIiltiiil II 



Fig. 26. — Coop for Broody Hens 
ware jar and pour over them the clear liquid. 
Eggs may be put in from day to day, but they 
must always be well covered. Before boiling 
preserved eggs, the larger end should be pierced 
with a pin. 



148 



CHICKENS 



How To Treat Broody Hens 
The old-fashioned methods of " curing " a hen 
of her broodiness, either by ducking her in a pond 
or putting her in a dark place to starve for three 
or four days, have been superseded by the more 
humane and more effective broody coops. A box, 
three feet six inches long, and three feet wide may 
easily be made into a broody coop for six hens, 
as follows: Waterproof the top, and nail round 
bars two inches apart at the bottom, running 
lengthwise. Construct the front as in the illus- 
tration, and place a trough for food and a pan for 
water within reach of the prisoners. The hens 
only being able to perch on the bars, there is a 
continual passage of cool air underneath them, 
when the coop is placed on legs, which soon cures 
them of the broody instinct. During the process, 
which usually lasts about three days, they must 
be regularly fed and watered, so that they will 
soon be able to commence laying again, and if 
the coop is placed in sight of the other fowls, so 
much the better. 

Tables For Poultry Keepers 

Periods of Incubation 



Hen ... 


... 20 to 22 days 


Turkey 


28 to 30 days. 


Duck ... 


... 28 to 30 " 


Guinea Fowl 


26 to 28 " 


Goose ... 


... 28 to 31 » 


Pea Fowl 


28 to 30 » 



AND HOAV TO RAISE THEM 



149 



Mating Poultry 

Ducks, Heavy Breeds ... 2 or 3 to 1 drake. 

" Light " ... 3 or 4 to 1 » 

Hens, Heavy ... 5 to 7 to 1 cock. 

» Light " ... 6 to 8 to 1 » 

Geese 2 or 3 to 1 gander. 

Turkeys 5 to 8 to 1 cock. 

In mating, it must always be borne in mind 
that the males differ considerably in constitu- 
tional vigor, and some may be more heavily 
mated than others. Male birds on unlimited 
runs may be given nearly twice as many hens as 
would suffice in confinement. 

Table of Foods 



There is in every 
100 parts by 
weight of— 



Beans and Peas ... 

Oatmeal 

Middlings, Thirds, 
or Fine Sharps 
Oats 
Wheat 
Buckwheat 
Barley 
Indian Corn 
Hempseed 
Rice 
Potatoes 
Milk 



to r 

C N O 
GC *j —. 



25 

18 

18 

15 

12 

12 

11 

11 

10 
7 
6J 
4* 



Warmth-giving 

and Fattening 

Material. 



Fat or starch 
Oil. 



2 
6 

6 
6 
3 
6 
2 
8 
21 
a trace 



48 
63 

53 
47 

70 
58 
60 
65 
45 
80 
41 
5 





6 


Bone- 


E 


Making 




Material 


or 


O 


Mineral 


.M 


Sub- 


CO 


stances. 


w 


2 


8 


2 


2 


5 


4 


2 


20 


2 


1 


1* 


11 


2 


14 


1 


5 


2 


14 


a trace 


— 


2 


— 


1 


— 



15 

9 

14 
10 
12 

Hi 

11 

10 

8 
13 
50J 
86| 



CHAPTER XIII 
THE POULTRY KEEPER'S CALENDAR 

January. — The first month of the year is a 
most important one for the poultry keeper. The 
main business is the mating of the breeding-pens, 
upon which so much depends. Go carefully over 
each bird, rejecting all those that are undersized, 
diseased, malformed, or which do not promise to 
fulfil the object in view. See that the cock or 
cockerel has been well-fed and is in prime con- 
dition. If he does not mate readily, but bullies 
the hens, replace him by another. Do not over- 
stock the pens, but endeavor to allow as much 
liberty as possible. Provide plenty of litter in 
the houses and sheds, and keep the birds busy 
scratching for some hidden corn when the 
weather is too bad for them to get outside. 
Give the breeders a good proportion of nitro- 
genous food such as cut-bone, meat or pea meal, 
and, if the weather is severe, allow some maize 
occasionally. Hatch as many chicks for the 
table-fowl trade as possible. They will fetch top 

150 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 151 

prices at Easter, and later, and will well repay 
the owner for the extra attention required. 
Provide plenty of shelter for both young and 
old, and keep all as dry as possible. See that the 
breeding stock are not too young. A cockerel 
mated to two-year-old hens, or an old, but vigor- 
ous, " rooster " mated with pullets, will produce 
the strongest chickens. 

February. — Hatching chickens for table must 
still be continued vigorously. The demand for 
eggs for incubation will increase this month, and 
to satisfy your customers as well as yourself, the 
germs must be kept strong. The stock birds 
must not be neglected for the sake of the young- 
sters. Maintain the former in a good, vigorous 
condition, without overstimulating the egg- 
organs nor overfeeding. Grit and shell, or old 
mortar rubbish, are absolutely essential materials 
lor the maintenance of robust health. Do not 
overdo the moisture in the incubators, and the 
nest of the sitting hen will require none at all. 
This is proverbially a month of rain, and few 
things are more productive of disease than sloppy 
ground, and wet, foul sleeping places. Collect 
eggs frequently, and store until required, in a 



152 CHICKENS 

cool, dry place. If placed large end downward, 
in boxes and covered with bran, so much the 
better. Be careful that the older chickens are 
not overcrowded at night, and go round the 
foster-mothers after dark to see that all is well. 
Remember that the sun rises earlier every day, 
and the stock must not be kept waiting for 
breakfast. Feed the youngest first. 

March. — If the breeds kept are of the heavier 
kinds — Orpingtons, Wyandottes, or Asiatic cross- 
breds — the main supply of pullets for the follow- 
ing winter's laying must now be hatched. Set 
every available egg throughout this month, for 
u there's no chicken like a March chicken." Do 
not confine the menu to any particular method 
of feeding. Ring the changes between the 
various meals, and use soft mixtures and " dry 
feed " alternately. Watch the chickens' appe- 
tites, and feed accordingly ; the of tener the better 
so long as they are always keen and eat hungrily. 
Animal food as well as fresh vegetable is neces- 
sary, and full advantage must be taken of every 
gleam of sunshine. The older chickens will 
benefit by having at least one feed a day of 
boiled barley. Let them have as much liberty 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 153 

as possible. Some linseed meal added to the 
staple mixture of ground oats and middlings will 
assist feathering, and green cut-bone will give 
them stamina, and increase the rapidity of 
growth. Keep an eye on the breeding-pens and, 
if one or more of the stock cocks appears to be 
going off in condition, immediately put him by 
himself and feed him up. If there is one held 
in reserve in case of such an emergency so much 
the better. Cod-liver oil and quinine capsules are 
useful in such cases. 

April. — Hatching the heavier breeds may still 
be continued if the last month's output proved 
inadequate. The non-sitting varieties — Anconas, 
Leghorns, and Minorcas — must be produced this 
month, so that they will begin to lay before win- 
ter sets in. They mature faster than the Asiatics 
and are, on the whole, more profitable as egg 
producers. There are probably more chickens 
hatched in April than in any other month, and 
overcrowding must be avoided at all cost. As 
the foster-mothers become vacated by the older 
lots, wash them out with quicklime containing a 
little paraffin oil, and lean them open to the sun 
and air. Keep old and young separate, and put 



154 



CHICKENS 



the cockerels and pullets of the earlier hatches 
apart as soon as they can be distinguished. Put 
the " best " on the market at the first opportu- 
nity, but beware of sending out undersized, 
badly fattened specimens. Aim at the " best," 
and grade the consignments according to size 
and quality. If there are any surplus eggs, in- 
cubate them, and sell the chicks as " day-olds," 
or place the former in a preservative. They 
must, however, be fresh when put in the latter, 
no matter what it may be composed of. 



May. — Sittings of eggs from the lighter breeds 
raav still be advertised, and the last batches of 
chickens from such must be brought off before 
the end of the month. Those country poultry 
keepers who cater for a seaside trade must com- 
mence hatching eggs for table fowl and duck- 
lings. There will be a brisk demand for the lat- 
ter in most places during the "season." Add 
some dry bone-meal to the food prepared for pul- 
lets and cockerels which are to be kept for stock. 
Now that the sun is gaining power less artificial 
heat will be required during the daytime in the 
brooders. Give the eggs in the incubators rather 
more airing and allow the broody hens fifteen to 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 155 

twenty minutes daily. Do not forget to use in- 
sect powder freely in the nests and see that the 
dust baths are dry. A sprinkling of powdered 
sulphur over the latter will be beneficial. 

June. — Long days and short nights, much work 
and little rest, are the lot of the poultry keeper 
this month. Expenses are also high on account 
of the number of young stock on hand. Late 
broods of chickens or lots from the incubator that 
are not required, should be disposed of. The in- 
sect fiend must be vigorously attacked this month. 
Examine the youngest chickens for ticks, and the 
older ones for lice, every few days. Ticks will 
be found adhering to the skull and neck, and 
must be killed by the application of a drop or 
two of carbolized oil (1 in 20). Insect powder 
will destroy the lice ; and the litter in the coops 
and foster-mothers must be frequently renewed. 
Keep a sharp lookout for the u red mite "(see 
Chapter XI), and exterminate it before it becomes 
established, or there will be untold trouble. Now 
that vegetable food is becoming plentiful, it will 
simplify the work to use " dry feed " very largely. 
Provide plenty of fresh water daily. Break up 
the breeding pens and dispose of all those old 



156 CHICKENS 

hens or pullets that have laid during the past 
year, and which will be no longer required. The 
stock cocks which are to be kept on may be put 
into the cockerel pens. Give the growing pullets 
as much liberty as possible, and run them in mov- 
able houses in the open fields if possible. 

July The work for this month will be, for the 

most part, a repetition of that of June. It is 
still needful to maintain a sharp lookout for 
vermin, and to avoid overcrowding, both by day 
and night. Provide ample shade from the hot 
sun, and keep the drinking water cool. 

August. — The trade at the seaside or other holi- 
day resorts will now be at its height. It will not 
last many weeks so that the poultry keeper who 
is prepared for it will come off best. Some of 
the earlier pullets will be commencing to lay. 
Do not force them nor spoil your market by put- 
ting their immature eggs in with the larger ones. 
Do not allow pullets and old hens to run together. 

September. — The process of weeding out the 
stock may now be commenced, and it will be 
necessary, on account of the differences in size, 



AND HOW TO KAISE THEM 157 

to continue it for some months. Cockerels and 
pullets must not only be kept apart, but those in- 
tended for stock and those destined for table 
must be separated. Give the moulting birds a 
little powdered sulphur in the soft food : it will 
assist feather growth. Set eggs of good quality 
table fowls, and large ducks, to produce young- 
sters to be ready for the Christmas market. Lay 
in a good stock of peat moss or collect the autumn 
leaves, storing in a dry place for winter littering. 
If the demand for goslings is good, dispose of as 
many as possible this month and next. 

October. — Commence feeding the pullets more 
generously, giving animal food (cut green-bone, 
if possible) daily. If there is any stubble let 
them have full advantage of it. Keep the birds 
in small flocks — fifteen to twenty. Look out for 
leg-weakness among the cockerels of the heavier 
breeds. Dry bone-meal may still, be used, and a 
piece of sulphate of iron, the size of a filbert, 
placed in each quart of water. Give all coops 
and foster-mothers a thorough cleaning before 
putting them away. 

November. — The pullets will require special 



158 CHICKENS 

attention this month as regards feeding. Con- 
tinue the meat or green-bone and allow some 
maize occasionally in the afternoons. Keep the 
houses dry and well littered, and encourage 
scratching exercise under cover in bad weather. 
Remember that dampness retards egg- production, 
and the layers must be kept comfortable without 
being coddled. Some pea or bean meal will be 
a useful addition to the staple diet, and linseed 
meal is also highly beneficial in cold, damp 
weather. The autumn chickens and ducklings 
must be given ample vegetable and animal food, 
and a dry, well-littered shelter is no less impor- 
tant for them than it is in the case of the layers. 
Feed well on a somewhat fattening diet, house 
well, and limit the range, so that the birds will 
not be so much affected by the closer confine- 
ment necessary during the last stages of fatten- 
ing. Get your Christmas orders in good time. 

December.— Pen the Christmas ducks, turkeys, 
and geese, and increase the " fatty " constituents 
of the daily fare. Cage-fed fowls may now be 
crammed for those markets which appreciate and 
pay for the extra weight and quality. Use skim 
milk (or buttermilk) and ground oats largely for 



AND HOW TO RAISE THEM 159 

fattening all classes of poultry. Aim at produc- 
ing the very best. Put the stock on the market 
properly packed, clean, and graded. 

Balance the account of receipts and expendi- 
ture at the end of every month, and again every 
six months, •. e., in June and December. Keep 
a careful record of the stock, both " live " and 
" dead," and bear in mind that success cannot be 
attained without accurate bookkeeping. 



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rife} 



UBRARY OF CONGRESS 



002 866 978 Ij. 



